The Kingdom of Galicia in the texts (413- 1845) II. The Princes of Gallicia move the Seat to León.

Previously: https://budgetpixel.com/blog/the-kingdom-of-galicia-in-the-texts-413-1845-i?v=1774892911170 THE FIRST DIVISIONS OF THE KINGDOM OF GALLECIA OR GALLICIA: GALICIA AND TERRA DE FORIS. INTRODUCTION At first, the reigns are brief and disputed. The ancient kingdom reunifies during the reign of Ramiro II. TERRA DE FORIS IN DOCUMENTS The extensive kingdom was divided into Galicia proper (with the capitals of Braga, Lugo, and Astorga), already recognized by the Arabs during the 10th century as Galīsiyya , at the extremity of Ŷillīqiyya (Gallecia or Gallicia), and Terra de Foris . Externally, in Arab references, the kingdom was seen as a single kingdom. The term Terra de Foris (also Foris Terra ) is understood as "the foreign land [the outsider's land]" . It refers to the territory of Gallecia or Gallicia annexed in Suevic times in the eastern part of their kingdom, its natural limes being the Pisuerga River and the Cea River, where the "legionense" or Leonese seat was located, always referring to the city and never to an external territory of Gallecia or Gallicia, and even less (like Asturias) independent from the kingdom or the Galician province, as can also be deduced from the Silense or Legionense Chronicle . • « [...] natalis sanctorum Emetherii et Celedonii, qui primum apud Legionensem Galliciae civitatem milites [...] » « [...] the birth of the saints Emeterius and Celedonius, who first at the Leonese City OF GALICIA were soldiers [...] » ( Usuardus Sangermanensis : "Martyrologium" , 9th century). • « in ciuitate que uocitatur Legio, in territorio Gallecie » « in the city which is called León, in the territory OF GALICIA » (León Cathedral, year 928). • « in Legione de Galletia » « in León OF GALICIA » (León Cathedral, year 946). • « [...] civitate vocantur Legione in Gallaecia » « [...] the city called León IN GALICIA » (Letter from Sancho of Navarre to Vermudo III, Monastery of San Juan de la Peña-Huesca, year 1030). This reference to Terra de Foris, which Spanish national historiography deceptively calls León, is found in the inheritance of the kingdoms by the monarchs or their dominant territories and in the testaments of the Galician nobility related to the king. • « post discessum huius uite genitores mei parauit se DIUISIO INTER GALLETIAE ET TERRA DE FORIS uel ciuitates de fratribus meis, qui obtinuerunt ciuitates et Terra de Foris [---] fecerunt modo uero fratrem meum domno Santio principem in regno constituto » « After the departure from this life of my parents, a DIVISION WAS PREPARED BETWEEN GALICIA AND THE FOREIGN LAND or the cities of my brothers, who obtained the cities and the Foreign Land [...] they made my brother Lord Sancho prince, established in the kingdom » (Celanova Monastery, Tumbo 2/505, year 925). The two eldest sons of Ordoño II divided the kingdom (parauit se diuisio inter Galletiae et Terra de Foris), so that Sancho Ordóñez kept Galicia with the title of king (domno Sancio in regno constituto), after his coronation in Santiago, while his brother Alfonso IV did the same in León. • « in Bergido in villa Sicca Vª parte. IN TERRA DE FORIS in Hordas, in ripa Rubea, in Alisonza, in Sullantio » « In Bergido, in villa Sicca, the fifth part. IN THE FOREIGN LAND in Hordas, on the Rubea Bank, in Alisonza, in Sullantio » (Celanova Monastery, Tumbo 1/2, year 942). • « regnante Veremudo serenissimo PRINCIPE IN FORIS TERRA SEU ET GALLECIE DOMINANTE » « Reigning Vermudo, most serene PRINCE, DOMINATING IN THE FOREIGN LAND AND ALSO IN GALICIA » (Samos Monastery, Tumbo 178, year 988). SAHAGÚN MONASTERY IN GALICIA This territorial fact manifests itself more clearly when it already refers to the monastery of Sahagún (San Facundo), located in the ancient Campus Gallaeciae (later Campi Gothici ): • « Collegio fratrum Sanctorum Facundi & Primitibi in finibus GALLECIE super ripam amnes Ceia » « To the college of brothers of Saints Facundus and Primitivus, on the borders OF GALICIA, on the bank of the Cea River » (Sahagún Monastery, year 1068). « Very gross ignorance, or very affected, of the Geography of Spain; for without having read Strabo, nor Mela, nor Ptolemy, one could see in all the ancient Geographers of Spain, and in the Histories of this Kingdom, that for many centuries the Kingdom of Galicia reached Sahagún, and somewhat further, to what was later called, and is called today, the Kingdom of Castile: and never, when this was not so certain, would the words 'in finibus Galaeciae' be verified of Ourense, nor of its surroundings; for no one until now has said that the land of Ourense is at the extremes/borders of Galicia » (Romualdo Escalona: "Historia del Real Monasterio de Sahagún", apud Joachin Ibarra, Madrid 1782, p.10). CASTLE OF LUNA IN GALICIA It is extremely curious that two ancient recognized historiographers, from two different countries, one French and one Portuguese, agree in placing the Castle of Luna in Galicia: • « Ce Prince (García), moins heureux que ſon frere, ne put comme lui recouvrer ſa liberté, & il fut long-tems gardé dans le CHÂTEAU DE LUNA EN GALICE » « This Prince (Garcia), less fortunate than his brother, could not like him recover his liberty, and he was kept for a long time in the CASTLE OF LUNA IN GALICIA » ( Jean du Castre d'Auvigny : "Amusements Historiques" . Tome premier, Paris 1734, p.254). • « prendérao a seu Rey dom García, que levado ao CASTELO DE LUNA EM GALLIZA, nelle morreo » « They took their King dom Garcia, who was taken to the CASTLE OF LUNA IN GALIZA, where he died » ( Antonio Carvalho da Costa : "Corografía portugueza, e descripçam topográfica do famoso Reyno de Portugal" . Tomo Primeiro, apud Valentim da Costa Deslandes, Lisboa, 1706, p. 11). THE EASTERN LIMIT: THE PISUERGA RIVER The eastern limit is clearly marked on the Pisuerga River: • « Illud omnimode interdicimus, ut nulli unquam personae facultas si Beati Jacobi Eclesiae censum illum qualibet ocasione subtrahere, quem Hispanorum Reges nobilis memoriae Alfonsi presentis, praedecesores pro salute TOTIUS REGNI VEL PROVINCIA STATUERUNT A FLUMINE PISORICAE USQUE AD LITUS OCEANI, annuatium ex singulis Boum paribus persolvendum, sicut in scriptis eiusdem Eclesiae continetur » « We forbid in every way that any person ever have the faculty to subtract by any occasion that tax of the Church of Saint James, which the Kings of the Spaniards of noble memory, the predecessors of the present Alfonso, established FOR THE SALVATION OF THE WHOLE KINGDOM OR PROVINCE FROM THE RIVER PISUERGA TO THE SHORE OF THE OCEAN, to be paid annually from each pair of oxen, as is contained in the writings of the same Church » ( "Historia Compostelana" collected in "España Sagrada" by Henrique Flórez , tomo XX, Madrid, 1763, p. 32). This could be considered partial if it were not exactly the same limit that the Crónica Silense marks both for the kingdom of Gallecia [Gallicia] of Vermudo III and Alfonso V and for the place of origin of Fernando I (who comes from the borders of Gallecia [Gallicia], that is, from the banks of the Pisuerga river, since he was Navarrese-Castilian): • « Ceterum Veremudus infans a finibus Galleciensium usque ad fluvium Pisorga qui Cantabriensium regnum separat, obeunte patre rex constituitur » « Moreover, the infant Vermudo from the borders of the Galicians up to the river Pisuerga, which separates the kingdom of the Cantabrians, upon his father's death is constituted king » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 64). • « Siquidem Sancius Cantabriensium, post mortem Adefonsi Galleciensium principis, Veremudo teneris annis impeditu, partem regni sui videlicet a flumine Pisorga adusque Ceia suo dominio mancipaverat » « Indeed Sancho of the Cantabrians, after the death of Alfonso, prince of the Galicians, with Vermudo hindered by tender years, had taken for his dominion part of his kingdom, namely from the river Pisuerga up to the Cea » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 65). • « Fredinandus deinceps extincto Veremudo, a finibus Gallecie veniens obsedit Legionem, et omne regnum sue ditioni degitur » « Ferdinand thereafter, Vermudo having been extinguished, coming from the borders of Galicia besieged León, and the whole kingdom was brought under his rule » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 67). LIST OF REFERENCES TO LEÓN AS A CITY (NOT KINGDOM) • « Adefonso regi IN CIUITATE LEGIONENSI » « To King Alfonso IN THE LEGIONENSE CITY » (y. 912) • « regnante et imperante principe nostro glorioso domnus Adefonsus LEGIONENSE SEDIS » « Reigning and commanding our glorious lord prince Alfonso OF THE LEGIONENSE SEE » (y. 929) • « Ranimirus rex IN LEGIONEM CIUITAS » « King Ramiro IN THE CITY OF LEÓN » (y. 940) • « Ordonio rege IN LEGIONE CIVITATE » « King Ordoño IN THE LEGIONENSE CITY » (10th cent.) • « Ranemirus IN CIVITATE REGIS SEDIS LEGIONEM » « Ramiro IN THE CITY OF THE KING'S SEE OF LEÓN » (y. 982) • « regnante Sanctius rex IN SEDIS LEGIONENSIS » « King Sancho reigning IN THE LEGIONENSE SEE » (y. 1032) • « regnante principe Fernando prolis Santii IN SEDE LEGIONIS » « Prince Ferdinand, son of Sancho, reigning IN THE SEE OF LEÓN » (y. 1042) • « regnante rege Adefonso IN LEGIO CIVITAS » « King Alfonso reigning IN THE CITY OF LEÓN » (y. 1108) Note: All references say IN THE CITY of León, never "King OF León". THE FIRST OBJECTIVE OF THE GALICIAN MONARCHS The first objective of the galician monarchs was to recover, from El Bierzo and Galicia (Trastámara, Salnés, and the current province of Lugo and extreme north of Ourense), the western zone of the ancient kingdom. Equally, an important and very populated monastic network begins in these two regions of the Kingdom of Gallecia (or Gallicia), at the same time as the apostolic "inventio", not mentioned in the Asturian Chronicles nor later in the Castilian ones, is the catalyzing center that, on one hand, internally unifies the kingdom and, on the other, integrates it into the european world. This connection with Europe, which along with the ideological ones (the adoption of the french ecclesiastical rite) also extends to commercial relations, will provoke a serious ecclesiastical conflict between Toledo and Compostela, a conflict that will not end until the reign of Philip II. And even the current choronym Galiza / Galicia comes from the Frankish form Gallicia (Galyce > Galice) and not from the Hispanic form Gallecia. Note: In the Historia Compostellana it is clearly stated that Gelmírez transplanted to his Church the uses and customs of the Churches of France: • « applicuit animum, ut consuetudines ecclesiarum Francie ibi plantaret » « He devoted himself to plant the customs of the churches of France there » ( CC.MM 70, 222). Likewise, in the opposite sense, in the eyes of a 13th-century Frank, the Castilian land (Castile and Campos , it is, Terra de Foris ) is the land "of the Spaniards", which is full of "bad and vicious men", different from the "land of the Galicians", which "accommodates itself more perfectly than the other 'Spanish' populations, of backward customs, to our Gallic people, but the Galicians are irascible and litigious": cf. Codex Calixtinus vel Liber Sancti Jacobi. Liber Peregrinationis, cap. VII, 13th century ). • GARCÍA I, KING IN TERRA DE FORIS (GALLECIA/GALLICIA) (910-913) García I was king in Terra de Foris where he established his seat in the "civitate quae vocantur Legio, territorio Gallecie" (the city which is called León, in the territory of Galicia). He had opposition in Galicia proper, where his brother Ordoño II would be crowned, married to Elvira Menéndez, daughter of the powerful Galician noble, related to royalty, liberator of Coimbra up to the Mondego River, Hermenegildus Goterres, dux of Gallecia or Gallicia, count of Tui and count of Portucale (« Era DCCCCXVI [era 916 = y. 878] . Prendita est Conimbria ad Ermigildo comite »: cf. Chronicon Laurbanense). Note: Hermenegildus Goterres was married to the cousin of Alfonso III, the Bierzo-born Hermesinda Gatóniz, daughter of Count Gatón of El Bierzo, son of Ramiro I and brother of Ordoño I (cf. Ibn Iadari : "Al-Bayan Al-Mughrib"). • « Pusieron en su lugar a su hijo García, [...] aunque se le resistió su hermano, Ordoño hijo de Alfonso, en el occidente del país, en Galicia [Galīsiyya], extremo de Ŷillīqiyya, que llega a Coímbra, cerca de tierra musulmana, de la que el enemigo se había apoderado hacía poco » « They placed in his place his son García, [...] although his brother, Ordoño son of Alfonso, resisted him in the west of the country, in Galicia [Galīsiyya], extremity of Ŷillīqiyya, which reaches Coimbra, near Muslim land, of which the enemy had taken possession a short time before » (Arab Chronicles: Al-Muqtabis ). • « García, fillo de Alfonso, rei dos galegos » « García, son of Alfonso, king of the Galicians » (Arab Chronicles: al-Razí ). • « García, fillo de Alfonso, rei de Yillîqiyyâ » « García, son of Alfonso, king of Yillîqiyyâ (Galicia) » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan ). • ORDONIUS II, GALLICIÆ REX (KING OF GALICIA 911-914; KING OF GALLECIA/GALLICIA 914-924) Ordoño II was King of nuclear Galicia [Galīsiyya] between the years 911-914 and King of extensive Galicia [Ŷillīqiyya] between the years 914 and 924. • « Quem profecto, Ordonium insignem militem, Adefonsus pater magnus et gloriosus rex vivens, Galleciensium provincie prefecerat » « Whom indeed, Ordoño, distinguished soldier, Alfonso, his father, great and glorious king, while living, had placed in charge of the province of the Galicians » ( Francisco Santos Coco [ed.]: "Historia silense" . JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 36). Note: Alfonso III placed Ordoño in charge of Galleciensium provincie (province of the Galicians), NOT León. • « Siquidem dum pater adhuc viveret et ipse Galleciensibus dominaretur, [Ordonius] collecto totius provincie exercitu Beticam provinciam petiit » « Indeed, while his father was still alive and he himself was ruling over the Galicians, [Ordoño] gathering an army of the whole province, sought the province of Baetica » ( Francisco Santos Coco [ed.]: "Historia silense" . JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 37). • « Urdun ibn Idfunsh tagiya/'azim Yillîqiyyâ » « Ordoño, son of Alfonso, ruler/Great of Yillîqiyyâ (Gallecia/Gallicia) » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn al-Atir , Ibn Hayyan , al-Razí ). • « Ordon, señor de Yallîqiyyâ » « Ordoño, lord of Gallecia/Gallicia » (Arab Chronicles: Aben-Ahhari ). • FROILA II, GALLICIÆ REX (KING OF THE ASTURIANS 910-924; KING OF GALLECIA/GALLICIA 924-925) • « This year the tyrant Froila, prince of the Galicians (al-yalâliqa), passed away » (Arabic Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan , al-Razí ) • « The tyrant Fruela, lord of Yillîqiyyâ » (Arabic Chronicles: al-Nasir ) The reign of Froila II of Galicia and Asturias presupposes, in fact, the second reign of Asturias after the usurper Nepotian (deposed, chained, and blinded by Ramiro I following military defeat). • ALFONSUS FROILAZ, GALLICIÆ REX (925-926). Usurping the territory of Asturias in 926–931 : cf. Gómez-Moreno (ed.): "Las primeras crónicas: Nomina regum catolicorum legionensium" , p. 628. Alfonso Froilaz took refuge in Asturias after the division of the kingdom of Gallecia/Gallicia between Sancho and Alfonso (y. 926), sons of Ordoño II. There, all the Froilaz remained until the coronation of Ramiro II on November 6, 931 ( Ranimirus frater Adefonsi ordinatus est VIII idus nouembris ), for it was this monarch who resolved to put an end to the irregular "Asturian" reign of his cousin Alfonso Froilaz. • « Ille uero Asturias ingressus, cepit omnes filios Froylani: Adefonsum, qui sceptra paterna regere uidebatur, Ordonium et Ramirum secum adduxit; periterque cum frater suo suprafato Adefonso, qui ergastulo tenebatur, coniuxit, et omnes simul in vno die orbare precepit. Regnauerat quidem Adefonsus annos septem et menses septem. Era nonagessima LXIX, Ramirus securus regnans » « He, having entered Asturias, seized all the sons of Froila: Alfonso, who seemed to wield the paternal scepter, Ordoño, and Ramiro; he brought them with him; and together with his aforementioned brother Alfonso, who was held in prison, he joined them, and ordered all of them to be blinded on the same day. Indeed, Alfonso had reigned for seven years and seven months. Era 969 [931 AD], Ramiro reigning securely » ( "Introducción a la Historia Silense. Chronica Sampiri" , trans. M. Gómez-Moreno, with Spanish version of the same and of Sampiro's chronicle, Madrid 1921, CIII: ed. Pérez de Urbel, Sampiro , p. 322). • « Ramiro… reunió a todos… cuyos propósitos de reinar temía, y los cegó, entre ellos a… los tres hijos, Alfonso, Ramiro y Ordoño, del… anterior monarca… a partir de lo cual reinó sólidamente y sin competidores, acabando todo esto a principios del año 320 (= principios de 932) » « Ramiro… gathered all those… whose ambitions to reign he feared, and blinded them, among them… the three sons, Alfonso, Ramiro, and Ordoño, of the… previous monarch… after which he reigned solidly and without rivals, all of this ending at the beginning of the year 320 [Hijri] (= beginning of 932 AD) » (Arabic Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan ). The reign of Alfonso Froilaz cannot be considered legitimate, given that upon accessing the thrones of Galicia and Terra de Foris, Sancho and Alfonso, sons of Ordoño II, held authority. Still holding the Asturian scepter until the year 931, it was Ramiro II who decided to end this irregular situation, imprisoning the entire Froilaz family and blinding them. We know that the Froilaz family was captured and delivered in León by the dux of Gallecia/Gallicia, the Galician count Gutier Osoriz, father of Queen Adosinda Gutiérrez, wife and maternal cousin of Ramiro II, and of Osorio Gutiérrez, nicknamed "the holy count" and founder of the monastery of Lourenzá (Lugo), and grandfather of Countess Elvira Rodríguez, wife of the Lucensian count Rodrigo Romániz, grandson of Vermudo II and nephew of Alfonso V. All of them are characters worthy of a novel. • « In diebus quando ipse comes Guttier Osoriz presentauit illos infantes ante prefatus rex in ciuitatem rege sedis Legionem, quando eos cediderunt et suam terram ipsi comes et cum gens sua de manu regis ad imperandum acceperunt » « In the days when that count Gutier Osoriz presented those infants before the aforementioned king in the royal city of the seat of León, when they were executed, and the same count with his people received from the king's hand the land of the infants to govern » ( Document of Odoyno : AHN, Tumbo de Celanova, ff. 97v–100v). From the Arabic references, it is deduced that Asturias, like Galicia and Terra de Foris, continued to be included within the province of Gallecia (or Gallicia). Miscellanea: References to the Kingdom of Galicia in European Literature (Medieval to Modern Periods). GALICIAN AS A LITERARY LANGUAGE: The text explicitly mentions "Galiciâne" (Galician) alongside: Franzoys (French) Bertûn (Breton) Provenzâle (Provençal) Burgunjoys (Burgundian) This is EXTRAORDINARY evidence that: • Galician was considered a major Romance language • On equal footing with French, Breton, Provençal • Recognized in German medieval literature (c. 1200) • Part of the European cultural sphere THIS DEMONSTRATES: • Galician was NOT a "minor" or "peripheral" tongue • It had literary prestige across Europe • It was known and cited by major authors WHY GALICIAN WAS CONSIDERED A CULTURED LANGUAGE: In the 12th–14th centuries, Galician-Portuguese was the prestige language of lyric poetry in the Iberian Peninsula. Kings like Alfonso X of Castile and Dinis of Portugal chose Galician—not their own vernaculars—to compose poetry, because it was considered more melodic, refined, and suited to courtly love themes . The Cantigas (of love, of friend, of scorn) circulated across European courts, and Galician was explicitly listed alongside French, Breton, and Provençal as a language of culture (Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival ). Simply put: Galician was the "Italian" or "French" of medieval Iberia —the language you used when you wanted to be taken seriously as a poet. LIDDAMUS'S TERRITORIES IN GALICIA: CRITICAL IDENTIFICATION: Vedrûn ----> Pontem Veteram (today Pontevedra , literally "Old Bridge") Bertûn ----> Brittany Liddamus controls: • Galicia (from Pontevedra northward) • Extends to Brittany (France) THIS IMPLIES: • Galicia was a territory of strategic importance • Connected to Atlantic trade/military routes • Part of a broader Atlantic political sphere The mention of "many fortresses" (mange burc) indicates Galicia was heavily fortified and strategically significant. 3. THE HOLY GRAIL AND PEDRAFITA DO CEBREIRO. THIS IS THE MOST FASCINATING CONNECTION: Pedrafita do Cebreiro . Ancient pilgrimage site on the Camino de Santiago Holy Chalice legend . The church claims to hold a miraculous Eucharistic chalice Eucharistic miracle (c. 1300) . Medieval account of bread and wine transforming into flesh and blood Parzival's Grail quest . Wolfram's work centers on finding the Holy Grail Pedrafita do Cebreiro: The Threshold. Pedrafita = "fixed stone" or menhir (Galician: pedra + fita ). O Cebreiro = the mountain pass where the Camino de Santiago enters nuclear Galicia . This is not coincidence. This is sacred geography. • A menhir marks ancient ritual space: alignment, memory, threshold. • Pedrafita do Cebreiro literally means: "the standing stone." • If Wolfram von Eschenbach associated the Holy Grail with this location, he may have sensed what the name already reveals: this is a place of ancient power, transition, and revelation. Galahad, Monsalvat and O Cebreiro. In Arthurian legend, Galahad (the pure knight) reaches Monsalvat (Wolfram's Munsalväsche ), the mountain fortress where the Holy Grail is kept. The name has been interpreted as "mons salvatus" (saved mountain) or "mont sauvage" (wild mountain)—a place of revelation, accessible only to the worthy. O Cebreiro fits this archetype remarkably: A high mountain pass (1300 m.) at the entrance to nuclear Galicia Home to an ancient chalice with a documented Eucharistic miracle (c. 1300) A threshold space : where pilgrims cross from León into Galicia Pedrafita ( "fixed stone" / menhir): a marker of ancient sacred geography If Wolfram von Eschenbach knew of Galicia through the Camino de Santiago, Monsalvat could very well be a poetic encoding of O Cebreiro —a mountain of mystery, a guardian of the Grail, a place where the worthy arrive after journey. This would make Galicia not peripheral to Grail legend, but its sacred center . Fig. Pedrafita do Cebreiro and its 'pallozas' —oval dwellings with rye straw thatched roofs, of pre-Roman Celtic tradition. Miscellanea: Galicia in Medieval Cartography. Fig. Ard Galika ( The Land of Galicia ) is not a part of Al-Andalus like "Terra de Foris" ( Semal Al-Andalus " North of Al-Andalus") and Castile ( Ard Kastalia min Al-Andalus "Land of Castile [part] of Al-Andalus"). "Tabula Rogeriana" ( Al-Idrisi , y. 1154, copy by Konrad Miller) • SANCIUS I, GALLICIÆ REX (926-929). • « post discessum huius uite genitores mei parauit se DIUISIO INTER GALLETIAE ET TERRA DE FORIS uel ciuitates de fratribus meis, qui obtinuerunt ciuitates et Terra de Foris [---] fecerunt modo uero fratrem meum domno Santio principem in regno constituto » « After the departure from this life of my parents, a DIVISION WAS PREPARED BETWEEN GALICIA AND THE FOREIGN LAND or the cities of my brothers, who obtained the cities and the Foreign Land [...] they made my brother Lord Sancho prince, established in the kingdom » (Celanova Monastery, Tumbo 2/505, year 925). • « Gallæciæ Rex Sancius parentibus S. Rudesindi, ac filiis, Villare donat, ubi postæ Cellenovæ Monasterium fundatum [an. 927] » « Sancho, King of Galicia, donates Villare to the parents of Saint Rudesind and to his sons, where afterwards the Monastery of Celanova was founded [year 927] » ( Enrique Flórez : "España Sagrada. Theatro Geográphico-Histórico de la Iglesia de España", t. XVIII, apud Antonio Marin, 1764). • « Sancius, Gallæciæ Rex, Bustum Villam Hermegildo Compostellano Epo. eiusque successoribus tribuit [an. 927] » « Sancho, King of Galicia, grants the village of Bustum to Hermegild, Bishop of Compostela, and to his successors [year 927] » ( Enrique Flórez : "España Sagrada. Theatro Geográphico-Histórico de la Iglesia de España", t. XIX, apud Antonio Marin, 1765). • « Serenissimus Rex Dns. Sancius universæ urbe Galleciæ princeps [an. 929] » « The Most Serene King, Lord Sancho, ruler of the entire territory of Galicia [year 929] » ( Enrique Flórez : "España Sagrada. Theatro Geográphico-Histórico de la Iglesia de España", t. XIX, apud Antonio Marin, 1765). • ALFONSUS IV LEGIONENSIS REX (King in Terra de Foris 926-929; King of Gallecia/Gallicia 929-931). • « Facta carta presentis donacionis, era DCCCC. LXXXV, regnante me Rege Garsia Sancionis in Pampilona, in Alava et in Nagera, comite Fortunio in Aragon, Adefonsus in Gallecia, [---] » « the charter of this present donation, in the Era 985 [947 AD], while I, King García Sánchez, reign in Pamplona, in Álava, and in Nájera; with Count Fortún in Aragon; [and] Alfonso in Galicia, [---] » ( Antonio Ubieto Arteta : "Cartulario de San Juan de la Peña I" , Textos Medievales 6, Valencia, 1962, p. 53). • RAMIRUS II, GALLICIÆ REX (931-951). • « Sol horribilem eclipsim passus est feria sexta, hora diei 3, quo die in Hispania Abdaram rex Sarracenorum a Radamiro Christianissimo rege Galliciæ in bello superatus est » « The sun suffered a horrible eclipse on Friday, at the third hour of the day, on which day in Hispania Abd al-Rahman, king of the Saracens, was defeated in battle by Radamir, the most Christian king of Galicia » ( Helinandus Frigidi Montis : "Chronicon" . Patrologia Latina, vol. 212, J.-P. Migne, Paris, 1855). • « Ramire Roi de Galice gaigna une bataille sur Abdaran Roy des Maures de Cordouë [...] » « Ramire, King of Galicia, won a battle against Abdaram, King of the Moors of Córdoba [...] » ( M. Claude Fauchet : "Les oeuvres de feu M. Claude Fauchet, president en la cour des monnoyes" , Ed. Iean de Heuqueuville, París, 1610). • « Hoc in tempore, ut ipsi bene nostis, sol magnam et cunctis terribilem passus est eclipsin, sexta feria, hora diei tertia; quae etiam die Abderahamem, rex vester, a Radamiro christianissimo rege Gallitiæ in bello est superatus » « At this time, as you well know, the sun suffered a great and terrible eclipse to all, on Friday, at the third hour of the day; on which same day Abderahamen, your king, was defeated in battle by Radamir, the most Christian king of Galicia » ( "Liudprandi Antapodosis. Lib. V." , MGH, vol. III, Ed. Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1839). • « Sed dum plus ultra, apud Italos diffunduntur, internecina clade funduntur apud Iberos, a Ramiro, Gallæciæ Rege, qui sub auspiciis S. Iacobi Ap. 70000 hostium percussit [...] [Index: Ramirus. Gallæciæ Rex 69-70.] » « But while they spread further beyond, among the Italians, they are poured out in internecine slaughter among the Iberians, by Ramiro, King of Galicia, who under the auspices of St. James the Apostle struck down 70,000 of the enemy [...]. [Index: Ramirus. King of Galicia 69-70.] » ( "Hierarchia Benedictino-Ecclesiastica" , typis Gregorii Menhardt, Estiria, 1752). • « Facta cartula sub era DCCCC. LXXX. VI., regnante Domino nostro Ihesu Christo, Gartia Sancionis rex in Pampilonia et in Aragone, regnante Fortunio Scemenonis et suo creato rege domno Sancio possidentes Aragone, Ranimirus rex Obeto sibe Galletia imperium suum » « Charter made under Era 986 [948 AD], with Our Lord Jesus Christ reigning, García Sánchez king in Pamplona and in Aragon, with Fortún Semeno reigning and his created king lord Sancho possessing Aragon, Ramiro king ruling his empire over Oviedo and Galicia » ( A. Ubieto Arteta , "Documentos reales" , Monasterio de San Juan de la Peña, n° 32). • « [A 951] tempore hiemis, diebus certis ianuarii uidelicet mensis, currente feliciter era DCCCCLXXXVIIII, regnante Domino nostro Iesuchristo, [...]. Ipsis igitur diebus obiit Galleciensis rex Ranimirus » « [In 951] in wintertime, on certain days of the month of January indeed, while the Era 989 [951 AD] was happily running, with Our Lord Jesus Christ reigning [...]. In those same days died the Galician king Ramiro » ( Valeriano Yarza Urquiola : "Gomesanis Albaildensis presbiteri prologus/El Prólogo de Gomez, presbítero de Albelda" , Cuadernos de Filología Clásica. Estudios Latinos, vol. 36, nº 2, 2016, p. 213). ( Denise Péricard-Méa : "Compostelle et cultes de saint Jacques au Moyen Âge (2000). La noblesse française à Compostelle." , Cap. XIII. Presses Universitaires de France (PUF). Col. Le Noeud Gordien, 2000, p. 241-248. "[...] The monk of Saint-Martin d'Albelda (near Logroño), who noted his passing in a manuscript, perhaps gives the answer: In those same days, died the king of Galicia, Ramiro"). • « Ramiro, fillo de Ordoño, rei de Yillîqiyyâ » « Ramiro, son of Ordoño, king of Gallecia/Gallicia » (Crónicas árabes: Ibn Hayyan ). • « Rudmir, le roi des Galiciens » « Rudmir, the king of the Galicians » (Crónicas árabes: al-Himyari ). • ORDONIUS III, GALLICIÆ REX (951-956). Galician noble, son of Ramiro II and « alia uxore Galliciensi s » [the Galician queen Adosinda Gutiérrez, cousin of Ramiro II]. « Mortuo autem Ranemiro ... successit en regno filius eius Ordonius » [Upon Ramiro's death... his son Ordoño succeeded him in the kingdom]. As we can read in the Albeldense Chronicle or in Helinandus Frigidi Montis , the name of this kingdom that Ordoño III inherits is the same as his father's: « Ipsis igitur diebus obiit Galleciensis rex Ranimirus / Radamiro Christianissimo rege Galliciæ » [In those very days died Ranimirus, King of Galicia / King Ramiro, most Christian King of Galicia]. He gained the support of the Galician nobility and faced the Navarrese and Castilians, who supported his half-brother Sancho in his dispute over the throne. Sancho was backed by the Kingdom of Navarre and the Castilian count Fernán González. Sancho ultimately lost his power struggle in 953, with the secondary consequence being the submission of the Castilian count to Ordoño. • SANCIUS II, GALLICIÆ REX (two periods: 951-956 and 960-966). Brother of Ordoño III and son of Ramiro II, he was crowned in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela by Sisnando II of Iria. He enjoyed the support of part of the Galician nobility, but gradually shifted his alliances toward the Castilian count Fernán González and the Kingdom of Navarre. This provoked significant opposition, which led to his dethronement and the coronation of Ordoño IV in Santiago de Compostela. Sancho II, defeated and expelled from the kingdom by Ordoño IV, sought refuge and help from the Arabs to recover the kingdom, which he achieved years later. He tried to draw closer to the Galicians, but with no success. He died poisoned by the Galician count Gonzalo Muñoz. His son, Ramiro III, did not gain acceptance from the Galician nobility, with Bermudo II being crowned in Compostela, the fourth king crowned in Compostela since the... • « Sancho, son of Ramiro, (...) king of Galicia » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Khaldun ) • ORDONIUS IV, GALLICIÆ REX (958-960) Son of Alfonso IV and Queen Oneca Sánchez of Pamplona, and father of Bermudo II. Crowned in Santiago de Compostela in the year 958. He defeats and expels Sancho II from the kingdom of Gallecia/Gallicia. He dies under mysterious circumstances in the year 960 (possibly poisoned, which may explain the subsequent vengeance upon Sancho II, who was also poisoned). • « Sancho, king in León, finds asylum at his court (that of Abd al-Rahman), the most splendid in the universe. The sovereigns of Galicia, Navarre, and the Count of Barcelona seek his patronage. The kings of France and Hungary request his alliance » (Lucien Renard: "Histoire d'Espagne". Ed. Furne, Paris, 1855). • RAMIRUS III, GALLICIÆ REX (966-982) • « et perunctus est in regno filius ipsius Santionis nomine Ranemirus miniman et pusillam agens etatem qui nuper adhuc continens PRINCIPATUM quando hec exaravimus » (Celanova, Tumbo 265: year 982). "And he was anointed in the kingdom, the very son of Sancho, named Ramiro, being of most tender age, who still held the PRINCIPALITY when we write this." (NOTE) NOTE: We are facing the first mention of Galicia as a PRINCIPALITY . Indeed, he must still have held Galicia, as it would soon be taken from him by Bermudo II , crowned king in Compostela that same year 982 . We are speaking of a territory that at that time encompassed the dioceses of Iria and Lugo (the Lucense territory), that is, the current provinces of A Coruña and Lugo, the lands of "Castella" and "Bubal" in the north of the province of Ourense, the northern half of the province of Pontevedra, and probably Asturias as far as Oviedo—which explains its primitive coat of arms, such as those that can be seen in the "Palace du Franc", manor house of Emperor Charles V, in Ghent. Fig. The old arms of Asturias indicated its belonging to the kingdom of Galicia on the one hand, and, on the other hand, its belonging to the crown of Castile. Photo: Palace du Franc (Ghent). Fig. The coat of arms of the kingdom of Galicia in the "Palace du Franc" (Ghent). • « Ramiro, son of Sancho, son of Ramiro, lord of Galicia » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan ). • VEREMUDUS II, GALLICIÆ REX (King of the Principality of Galicia 982-984; King of Gallecia/Gallicia 985-999) Bermudo II was crowned King of the Principality of Galicia in Santiago de Compostela in the year 982, defeating Ramiro III, who was defending his reign, at the Battle of Portela de Areas (Monterroso, Lugo). He later took the see of León in Terra de Foris (y. 984), crowning himself King of Gallecia/Gallicia. He negotiated peace with Almanzor and had to suppress a significant rebellion by Galician nobles. • « Regem alium, nomine Veremendum super se erexerunt; qui fuit ordinatus in Sede Sancti Jacobi Idibus Octobris, Æra MXX » « They raised another king over them, named Vermudo; who was ordained in the See of Saint James on the Ides of October, Era 1020 [982 AD] » ( Chronicle of Sampiro , ed. J. Pérez de Urbel, Sampiro, su crónica y la monarquía leonesa en el siglo X , Madrid 1952, p. 342). • « Principis Domini Veremendi....in terram Galletiæ præfatus Princeps » « Of Prince Lord Vermudo....the aforementioned Prince in the land of Galicia » ( Henrique Flórez : "España Sagrada. Theatro Geographico-Historico de la Iglesia de España. A la Santa Iglesia Metropolitana de Santiago" , vol. XIX, apud Antonio Marin, Madrid, 1765). • « Sed cum Ranemirus Rex haec omnia audisset congregato omni exercitu disposiut se venire ad Gallæciam. Quo audito a Veremudo Rege & ipse adunavit totam Gallæciam & simul de utraque parte convenrunt as Portellam de Arenas iuxta Montem Rosum, & dimicaverunt ibi, & postquam dimicaverunt, & fuerunt separari, Ranemirus rediit in Legionem » « But when King Ramiro heard all this, having gathered his entire army, he prepared to come to Galicia. Upon hearing this, King Vermudo also assembled all of Galicia, and both sides met at Portela de Areas near Monterroso, and they fought there. And after they had fought and separated, Ramiro returned to León » ( Enrique Flórez : "España Sagrada. Theatro Geographico-Historico de la Iglesia de España. Chronicon Iriense" , vol. XX, apud Antonio Marin, Madrid, 1763, p. 607). • « regnante Veremudo principe in Foris Terra seu in Gallecia dominante » « Reigning Prince Vermudo in Foris Terra or ruling in Galicia » ( Maximino Arias Cuenllas : "El monasterio Samos desde sus orígenes hasta el siglo XI" . Archivos Leoneses. Revista de estudios y documentación de los reinos hispano-occidentales, XXXV, nº 70, 1981, p. 350, [Samos, year 988]). • « Qui profecto Veremudus, post ubi in finibus Gallecie arcem regni adeptus est, non ut preceps et inhers negotii, sed in ipso principatus sui exordio Mauros solerti cura expugnare cepit [...] » « This same Vermudo, after he attained the fortress of the kingdom in the borders of Galicia, not as one rash and idle in business, but at the very beginning of his principality, began to attack the Moors with diligent care [...] » ( "Historia silense" , ed. Justo Pérez de Urbel & Atilano González Ruíz-Zorrilla, CSIC, Escuela de estudios medievales, Madrid, 1959, p. 176). • « In tempore avii nostri Veremundi Rex, rebellaverunt illi Comites Gallecie Suarius Gundemariz ceterosque Comites, eius complices. Pro tale facto exercitu aggregato venit in isto opido Luco, ubi multis diebus commoravit, quousque Domini misericordia multis bellis peregit et provincia ipsa Galletie humiliatos iure suor eduxit » « In the time of our grandfather King Vermudo, those Counts of Galicia, Suario Gundemáriz and other counts, his accomplices, rebelled. For such an act, having gathered an army, he came to this town of Lugo, where he stayed for many days, until, by the mercy of God, he accomplished it through many battles and led out that province of Galicia itself, having humbled them according to his right » ( Privilege of Bermudo III , year 1032, in España Sagrada, vol. XL, appendix XXV). • « Le roi Vermudo de Galice envoya ses ambassadeurs et ses lettres pour concerter un arrangement avec Almanzor,» et Ayûb ben Amer de Gezira Saltis retourna avec les ambassadeurs chrétiens pour traiterb avec le roi Bermond.(...) Quand Ayûb ben Amer fut de retour à Cordoue de son «ambassade auprès du roi de Galice, Almanzor ne goûta point» le traité qu'il avait fait avec les infidèles [...] » « King Vermudo of Galicia sent his ambassadors and his letters to arrange an agreement with Almanzor, and Ayûb ben Amer of Gezira Saltis returned with the Christian ambassadors to negotiate with King Bermudo. (...) When Ayûb ben Amer returned to Córdoba from his 'embassy to the King of Galicia', Almanzor did not approve of the treaty he had made with the infidels [...] » ( R. P. A. Dozy : "Recherches sur l'histoire politique et littéraire de l'Espagne pendant le moyen-âge" , 1849). • « Don Vermudo otrossi, quando esto uio, ayunto su poder et daquellos poderosos de Gallizia quel alçaran rey, et ueno contra ell. Et ayuntaronse et lidiaron en un lugar que dizien Portiella de arenas » « Don Vermudo also, when he saw this, gathered his power and that of those powerful men of Galicia who had raised him as king, and came against him [Ramiro]. And they met and fought in a place called Portela de Areas » ( "Primera Crónica General de España" . Ed. Ramón Menéndez Pidal, 1906, p. 430 b 36-40). • « Veremudus dei gratia Rex Gallecie » « Vermudo, by the grace of God, King of Galicia » (Monastery of Caaveiro, although scholars do not agree on the dating of the diploma, as the cartulary was modified in the 13th century). • « Vermudo [...], rei dos galegos » « Vermudo [...], king of the Galicians » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Khaldun ). • « el rey Bermond de Galicia » « King Bermudo of Galicia » ( Jose Antonio Conde : “Historia de la dominación de los árabes en España” . Vol. 2. Imprenta de D. Juan Oliveres, (ed.), Barcelona, 1844, p. 82). Miscellanea: References to the Kingdom of Galicia in European Literature (Medieval to Modern Periods). ANONYMOUS: "Charroi de Nîmes" Chanson de Geste (Cycle of William of Orange), 12th Century. Language: Occitan (Old French) Manuscript: Fr. 1448 (Bibliothèque nationale de France) (Excerpt Translation) King Otrans began to speak to him: "Brother Tiacre, by the law in which you live, Where did you conquer such a rich estate? In what country or in what fief is your life?" And William said: "This I can well tell you: In sweet France I have conquered some. Now I truly go to Lombardy, And to Calabria, to Puglia and to Sicily, To Germany as far as Romania, And to Tuscany and from there to Hungary; Then I return from here towards Galicia, Through Spain, a land well-fortified [or rich/strong], And to Poitou as far as Normandy; In England, in Scotland is my life: As far as Wales I shall not stop my journey; Straight to Krakow I will lead my empire, To a fair of great ancestry. I made my exchange in the kingdom of Venice." The pagans said: "Many lands have you sought, It is no wonder, villain, if you are rich." "In the 12th-century Chanson de Geste 'Charroi de Nîmes', the hero William of Orange lists his conquests and travels. Notice how Galicia appears alongside France, England, Germany, and Sicily as a distinct, powerful, and 'well-fortified' kingdom ('une terre garnie'). For medieval Europe, Galicia was not a footnote; it was a main stage." Miscellanea: Galicia in Medieval Cartography. • ALFONSUS V , GALLICIÆ REX (King of Gallecia/Gallicia 999- 1028 ) • « A l'approche du péril, les trois royaumes de Galice, de Navarre et Castille, oubliant leurs querelles particulières, s'unirent pour le conjurer. La Navarre marchait sois son roi Sancho el Mayor; la Castille obéissait à Sancho Garcés, et le comte Menendo de Galice, tuteur du jeune roi Alphonse V, conduisait les Léonais » « As danger approached, the three kingdoms of Galicia, Navarre, and Castile, forgetting their particular quarrels, united to confront it. Navarre marched under its king Sancho el Mayor; Castile obeyed Sancho Garcés, and Count Menendo of Galicia, tutor of the young king Alfonso V, led the Leonese » ( Lucien Renard : "Histoire d'Espagne" . Ed. Furne, París, 1855). • « Alfonsus rex Gallitianus » « Alfonso, King of the Galicians » ( Ademarus Cabannensis monachus : "Chronicon [ab originibus Francorum ad a. 1028], III.70" . MGH SS, vol. IV, Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1841). • « Ipso denique anno (an. 1027) rex Gallitianus Adefonsus Sarracenos populatus est magna infestatione [...] » « In that very year [y. 1027], Alfonso, King of the Galicians, ravaged the Saracens with great devastation [...] » ( "Ademari Engolismensis S. Cibardi Monachi: Historiarum Libri Tres. Lib. III" , Patrologia Latina. Documenta Catholica Omnia. vol. 141, apud J.-P. Migne successores, Paris, 1853 or "Ademari Historiarum. Liber III" , MGH, vol. IV, Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1841). • « Il parle ensuite d'un Concile tenu à Charroux contre les erreurs des manichéens, que l'on renouvelait dans le pays; de la défaite des Sarrasins en Espagne par les armes d'Alphonse, roi de Galice, et de la mort de ce prince » « He then speaks of a Council held at Charroux against the errors of the Manichaeans, which were being revived in the region; of the defeat of the Saracens in Spain by the arms of Alfonso, King of Galicia, and of the death of this prince » ( Remi Ceiller : "Histoire générale des auteurs sacrés et ecclésiastiques" , vol. 13. Ed. L. Vivès, Paris, 1863). • « Interim Fredinandus Sanciam filiam Adefonsi Galleciensis regis nobilissimam puellam, Veremudo fratre regales sororis nuptias exhibente, in coniugium accepit » « Meanwhile, Ferdinand took in marriage Sancha, the most noble daughter of Alfonso, King of Galicia, with Vermudo, brother of the royal sister, officiating the wedding » ( "Historia silense" , [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 64). • « Siquidem Sancius Cantabriensium, post mortem Adefonsi Galleciensium principis, Veremudo teneris annis impeditu, partem regni sui videlicet a flumine Pisorga adusque Ceia suo dominio mancipaverat » « Indeed, Sancho of the Cantabrians, after the death of Alfonso, Prince of the Galicians, while Vermudo was hindered by his tender years, had subjected to his dominion part of his kingdom, namely from the river Pisuerga as far as the Cea » ( "Historia silense" , [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 65). Note: "As [Alfonso V] was still a minor, the Dux of Galicia, the Galician count Menendo González, was his tutor and reigned in his name; but Sancho, son of García, maternal uncle of Alfonso, disputed the tutelage, and they chose Abdelmelik, son of Almanzor, as arbiter, who ordered the judge of the Christians [of Córdoba], Asbagh, to decide the matter. The judge ruled in favor of Menendo González." ( Ibn Khaldun : trans. R. Dozy, "Investigaciones sobre la historia y la literatura de España durante la Edad Media" , vol. I, Madrid, 1878, p. 162. Spanish trans.: A. Machado y Álvarez). Alfonso V was married to Elvira Méndez of Melmanda (present-day Celanova), daughter of Count Mendo II González, Duke of Galicia and tutor of the monarch during his minority. Mendo González was 'princeps' of nuclear Galicia: "comes magnus ... omnem terram Gallecie ... obtinebat" ["a great count... who held all the land of Galicia..."]. This duke died violently defending Tui (Gunnvaldsborg: cf. Heimskringla) from the Viking attack led by Olaf Haraldsson, who would later become King of Norway. Indeed, the pilgrimage route connecting Norway with Santiago de Compostela is linked to this monarch, who would convert to Christianity and be recognized as a saint by the Catholic Church. • VERMUDUS III , GALLICIÆ IMPERATOR ( 1028-1037 ). • « Ceterum Veremudus infans a finibus Galleciensium usque ad fluvium Pisorga qui Cantabriensium regnum separat, obeunte patre rex constituitur » « Moreover, the infant Vermudo, from the borders of the Galicians as far as the river Pisuerga—which separates the kingdom of the Cantabrians—was established as king upon his father's death » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 64). • « Siquidem Sancius Cantabriensium, post mortem Adefonsi Galleciensium principis , Veremudo teneris annis impeditu, partem regni sui videlicet a flumine Pisorga adusque Ceia suo dominio mancipaverat » « Indeed, Sancho of the Cantabrians, after the death of Alfonso, Prince of the Galicians, while Vermudo was hindered by his tender years, had subjected to his dominion part of his kingdom, namely from the river Pisuerga as far as the Cea » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 65). • « Regnante domino nostro Ihesu Christo in unitate Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti, ego Sancius rex tenens culmen potestatis mee in Aragone et in Pampilona et in Suprarbi et Ripacurcia et in Nagera et in Castella et in Alaua, et comes Sancius Guillermis in Gasconia, et Belengarius comes in Barchilona, et imperator domnus Bermudus in Gallicia » « Reigning our Lord Jesus Christ in the unity of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, I, Sancho, king holding the summit of my power in Aragon and in Pamplona and in Sobrarbe and Ribagorza and in Nájera and in Castile and in Álava, and Count Sancho William in Gascony, and Count Berengar in Barcelona, and the lord emperor Bermudo in Galicia » ( R. Jimeno Aranguren & A. Pescador Medrano : "Colección documental de Sancho Garcés III" , Monasterio de San Juan de la Peña, A. 1030, n° 42). • « Alphonsus VII eius nepos antequam solemni ritu coronaretur Legione anno 1129, iam appellabatur Hispaniæ Imperator, quorum utrumque in veteribus monumentis eorum temporum legitur. Quid? quod longe ante utrumque Alphonsum, Rex Aragonum & Castellæ Comes D. Sancius, Imperatoris titulo decorabarur & ante illum Bermudus dictus fuit Imperator Gallæciæ » « Alfonso VII, his grandson, before being solemnly crowned in León in the year 1129, was already called Emperor of Hispania, as both titles are read in ancient monuments of their times. What is more? Long before both Alfonsos, the King of Aragon and Count of Castile, Don Sancho, was adorned with the title of Emperor, and before him, Bermudo was called Emperor of Galicia » ( José Sáenz de Aguirre : "Notitia conciliorum Hispaniae, atque novi orbis, epistolarum decretalium, et aliorum monumentorum sacrae antiquitatis" , apud Lucam Pérez, Salmanticae, 1686). Note: "In the year 1034, Sancho Garcés III of Pamplona burst into the royal city of León, which was proclaimed his for some time, while Vermudo III reigned in the western part of Galicia: cf. "Regnante Sanctius rex in sedis Legionensis" [Reigning King Sancho in the see of León] ( "Colección documental del Archivo de la catedral de León (775-1230). IV (1032-1109)" , [ed.] J.M. Ruíz Asencio, León, 1990, doc. 925 [February 9, 1034]), "Regnante domno Sancio rex in Legione" [Reigning lord King Sancho in León]( "Colección documental del Archivo de la catedral de León (775-1230). IV (1032-1109)" , [ed.] J.M. Ruíz Asencio, León, 1990, doc. 933 [27 de agosto de 1034]), "Regnante rex Sanco principe nostro in Leone" [Reigning King Sancho, our prince, in León] (Colección diplomática de Sahagún (857-1230), vol. II (1000-1073), ed. M. Herrero de la Fuente, León, 1988, doc. 439 [October 15, 1034]), "Regnantem rex Sanzius in Legione" [Reigning King Sancho in León] ( "Colección documental del Archivo de la catedral de León (775-1230). IV (1032-1109)" , [ed.] J.M. Ruíz Asencio, León, 1990, doc. 936 [2 de febreiro de 1035])." Miscellanea: Viking Raids on Nuclear Galicia: History and Legend (858 – the beginning of the 12th century). Nuclear Galicia suffered more Viking attacks than Arab incursions. Most scholarly works hold that the first Viking incursion into Galicia is recorded in the Annales Bertiniani , and dates to August 1, 844. On that occasion, a group from an expedition that had already sacked several enclaves along the French coast in 843—after wintering on the island of Noirmoutier—sailed up the Garonne river, reached Galicia driven by a storm, and was ultimately repelled in the vicinity of Farum Brigantium, that is, the Tower of Hercules (called Fár by them), after having plundered some coastal villages. Ramiro I was king at that time. Following their defeat, the Vikings continued their voyage toward Lisbon. Due to these Viking incursions, the ancient episcopal sees of Iria and Bretoña were forced to relocate inland, eventually settling in what are now Santiago de Compostela and Mondoñedo. Current studies are attempting to determine the possibility that the Vikings established permanent settlements in Galicia. Everything seems to indicate that the hostilities maintained with the Galicians did not allow for such a possibility. In fact, specific fortresses were built to protect against and combat them. The legend of Bishop Gonzalo of the diocese of Britonia (y. 844). The Last Druid? Upon the arrival of a large number of Viking ships at the mouth of the Masma river, the people fled to the bishop, whom they considered a saint. Gundisalvus of Britonia prayed to heaven for protection against the attack, and then a great storm arose that sank the greater part of the fleet. "The authentic crozier of Bishop Gonzalo of Bretoña, preserved in the Basilica of San Martiño de Mondoñedo (Foz, Lugo). Its pre-Christian character is evident (devoid of Christian symbolism), firmly linking it to the Celtic world." The Failed Viking Attempts to Establish Themselves in Galicia In the year 968, Vikings from Normandy, led by the Norwegian sækonungr (sea-king) Gudrød, brother of King Harald Eriksson of Norway, attempted to conquer Galicia with more than 200 drakkars. The chronicles recount that upon their arrival, they divided their fleet into two parts. One half stopped in the Mariña Lucense (coastal region of Lugo), from where they launched an attack against Lugo, but Hermenegild managed to defend the city. However, he could not prevent them from devastating the lands of the diocese of Britonia, whose ancient see was destroyed and subsequently rebuilt in present-day Mondoñedo. Another 100 ships were launched against Santiago de Compostela, penetrating through the Ría de Arousa. According to the Chronicon Iriense , they disembarked at Juncariae (Xunqueira) and marched toward Iria, where they confronted the troops commanded by Bishop Sisnando II. On March 29, the bishop of Iria-Compostela managed to corner them at Fornelos in a bloody battle in which the bishop ended up dying, struck by an arrow, enabling the subsequent Norse advance toward Santiago de Compostela and into the interior of Galicia, reaching even the highlands of Courel and Cebreiro. A large army was formed, led by the new Iria-Compostelan bishop San Rosendo, a man of the high Galician nobility related to royalty [NOTE], founder of the monastery of Celanova, and by the Galician dux Gonzalo Sánchez, who moved northward the troops from the frontier with the Arabs. The Vikings were defeated by San Rosendo at Santiago de Compostela (y. 970). Attempting to flee with their booty and prisoners, they were caught by the dux near Ferrol (y. 970-971), where they had their ships. Most of the Vikings were executed, including Gudrød Eriksson himself, and the ships were burned. The few survivors who remained fled toward Santarém. Galizu-Úlfr (The Wolf of Galicia) (1028 - 1048). The failed Viking attempt of 968-970 was not the final effort to establish a foothold in Galicia. Ulf 'the Galician' (Galizu-Úlfr), a member of the Danish royal house, later launched his own expedition. The Knýtlinga saga records that he set out 'bravely with his host to conquer Jakobsland'—the Norse name for the land of Santiago de Compostela. Unlike earlier raiders, Ulf resided in Galicia for several years, collaborating with the Galician count Rodrigo Romániz, suggesting a period of political accommodation. His eventual expulsion by Bishop Cresconio of Iria-Compostela (r. 1037–1066) proved decisive: following this defeat, Viking incursions into Galicia declined markedly, indicating that Galician military and ecclesiastical forces had successfully secured their territory against external settlement attempts. Miscellanea: References to the Kingdom of Galicia in European Literature (Medieval to Modern Periods). NOTE 1 The Royal Lineage of Saint Rudesind (San Rosendo) Saint Rudesind, the renowned Galician bishop, was the great-great-grandson of Ramiro I. He was the nephew of Ordoño II and Queen Elvira Menéndez, and therefore the first cousin ( cogermano suo ) of the monarchs Sancho Ordóñez, Alfonso IV "the Monk," and Ramiro II. Consequently, he was the uncle ( tío meo ) of Ordoño III, Sancho I, and Elvira Ramírez, who acted as regent for her nephew—Rudesind’s great-nephew—Ramiro III. His father was Count Gutiér Menéndez, great-grandson of Ramiro I and conqueror of Braga. (His granddaughter, Queen Goto, married Sancho Ordóñez, while Ramiro II married his niece, Queen Adosinda Gutiérrez.). His mother was Ilduara (Saint Ilduara), of the Eriz family of Lugo, daughter-in-law of King Alfonso III, and sister-in-law to the Kings of Galicia Ordoño II and Sancho Ordóñez, as well as to Kings Alfonso IV and Ramiro II. His paternal grandfather was the Galician count Hermenegild Gutiérrez, conqueror of Coimbra, chief lieutenant of Alfonso III, who married his cousin Hermesinda Gatóniz. His daughter, Queen Elvira Méndez, was the wife of King Ordoño II. This lineage would eventually culminate in the Traba family by the late 11th century, who ruled as Princes of Galicia [over the territory not held by the crown, which at that time comprised approximately 70% of the region] from 1127 to 1276, wielding authority equivalent to that of a king. NOTE 2 Germanic personal names in Galicia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_personal_names_in_Galicia • FERNANDUS I, REX GALLICIÆ, CASTELLÆ ET LEGIONIS & IMPERATOR GALLICIÆ. SANCIA IMPERATRIX GALLICIÆ ( 1037-1065 ). • « Ille fuit dapsilis et largus, iste prodigus ampliur. Ille acquisiuit regnum usque ad Gallitiam, hio iam imperando transiuit iliam. Si ipse bellando fuit similis leoni, iste deuastando similis tygridi fortiori [...] et eggregia imperatrice uxori Santia erigatur, et semper in regno Gallicie eorum sobolis dominetur . [...] Hoc priuilegium est actum temporem regnante imperatori Fredelando in imperio Gallicie atque in regno Hiberia . Era Mª. LXXXIIIª » « He was generous and liberal, the latter more prodigal. The former acquired the kingdom up to Galicia, the latter already ruling crossed beyond it. If the former in warfare was like a lion, the latter in devastation was like a stronger tiger [...] and to the distinguished empress, his wife Sancha, let it be erected, and may their offspring always dominate in the Kingdom of Galicia. [...] This privilege was enacted in the time of Emperor Ferdinand ruling in the Empire of Galicia and in the Kingdom of Iberia. Era 1083 [1045 AD] » ( P. Blanco Lozano : "Colección diplomática de Fernando I (1037-1065)" , Archivo Histórico Diocesano, León, 1987, doc. n° 25). • « Et functus in regno domus Fernandus princeps super omnem Galletiam » « And he ruled in the kingdom, Lord Ferdinand, prince over all Galicia » ( José Miguel Andrade Cernadas (edición, estudio e índices); Marta Díaz Tie , Francisco Javier Pérez Rodríguez (colabs.): "O tombo de Celanova: estudio introductorio, edición e índices, (ss. IX-XII)" . Consello da Cultura Galega, Santiago de Compostela, 1995, pp. 735-737 [Celanova, an. 1060]). • « Fredinandus deinceps extincto Veremudo, a finibus Gallecie veniens obsedit Legionem, et omne regnum sue ditioni degitur » « Ferdinand, after Vermudo was extinguished, coming from the borders of Galicia, besieged León, and subjected the entire kingdom to his dominion » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 67). • « Quibus auditis, Fredinandus rex , collecto a finibus Gallecie immenso exercitu , iniuriam regni ulcisci properat » « Hearing this, King Ferdinand, having gathered an immense army from the borders of Galicia, hastened to avenge the injury to the kingdom » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 69). • « Expulsa itaque de Portugale Maurorum rabie; omnes ultra fluvium Mondego , qui utramque a Gallecia separat provinciam , Fernandus rex ire cogit » « Therefore, with the madness of the Moors expelled from Portugal, King Ferdinand ordered all to go beyond the river Mondego, which separates both provinces from Galicia » ( "Historia silense" . [ed.] Francisco Santos Coco, JAEIC, Madrid, 1921, p. 77). • « Concilium Compostellanum sub Ferdinando Rege Gallætiæ » « Council of Compostela under Ferdinand, King of Galicia » ( Enrique Flórez : "España Sagrada. Theatro Geográphico-Histórico de la Iglesia de España" , vol. XIX, apud Antonio Marin, 1765). • « Rex Fredinandus in Leione et in Gallecia » « King Ferdinand in León and in Galicia » ( Antonio Ubieta Arteta : "Cartulario de San Juan de la Peña II" , Textos Medievales 9, Valencia, 1963, pp. 107, 110 [year 1054]). • « Rex Fredelandus in Castella et in Gallitia » « King Ferdinand in Castile and in Galicia » ( Antonio Ubieta Arteta : "Cartulario de San Juan de la Peña II" , Textos Medievales 9, Valencia, 1963, pp. 153, 167 [years 1056, 1058]). • « Hoc tempore Rex fuit in Galicia Sancius siue Fernandus nomine , qui tres habuit filios; primogenitum Sancium; Petrum, cognomento Alfonsum, siue Hildefvnsum & Fernandum » « At this time there was a king in Galicia by the name of Sancho or Ferdinand, who had three sons: the firstborn Sancho; Pedro, also called Alfonso or Ildefonsus; and Ferdinand » ( Ioanne Iacobo Chifletio : "Vindiciæ Hispanicæ; in quibus arcana regia, publico pacis bono, luce donantur" , Ed. ex Officina Platiniana Balthasaris Moreti, 1647, p. 161). • GARCIA II, REX PORTVGALLIÆ & GALLICIÆ ( 1065-1071 ). • « H. R. dominus Garcia Rex Portugalliæ et Galleciæ . Filius regis magni Ferdinandi. Hic ingenio captus a fratre suo in vinculis. obiit Era MCXXVIII XIº Kal. Apri » « Here rests Lord Garcia, King of Portugal and Galicia. Son of the great King Ferdinand. He, captured by cunning by his brother, died in chains. He died in Era 1128 [1090 AD], 11th Kalends of April [March 22] » ( Ricardo Arco y Garay : "Sepulcros de la Casa Real de Castilla" , 1954). NOTE : « prendérao a seu Rey dom García, que levado ao Castelo de Luna em Galliza, nelle morreo » ( Antonio Carvalho da Costa : "Corografía portugueza, e descripçam topográfica do famoso Reyno de Portugal", T. I, apud Valentim da Costa Deslandes, Lisboa, 1706, p. 11). « Ce Prince (García), moins heureux que fon frere , ne put comme lui recouvrer fa liberté, & il fut long-tems gardé dans le Château de Luna en Galice » ( Jean Du Castre d'Auvigny : "Amusements Historiques", Tome premier, París 1734, p.254. • SANCIUS II, REX CASTELLÆ & GALLICIÆ ( 1071-1072 ). • « Sancius Castellæ & Galleciæ rex conf . » « Sancho, King of Castile and Galicia, confirmed » ( Henrique Flórez & Manuel Risco : "España Sagrada: Lugo, anno 1071" , 1796 & 1798). Froila Bermúdez, the Froilaz-Traba dinasty, and the Ovéquiz Resistance: The Galician Struggle Against Alfonso VI Froila Bermúdez, the first prominent member of the Froilaz-Traba house (whose ancestry can be traced back to Hermenegild Gutiérrez), was one of the principal supporters of King Garcia II. His military exploits during the king's wars against his brothers Alfonso and Sancho are recorded in the 14th-century nobiliary of the Count of Barcelos, where he is portrayed as a great warrior and the foremost supporter and counselor of King Garcia. In the final act of the civil war, Garcia was imprisoned through deception by his brother Alfonso VI. The count was forced to submit and accepted Alfonso as regent of the Galician kingdom, but not as king. This event, recorded in the cartularies of the monastery of Xuvia, suggests that the upbringing of his son Pedro Froilaz de Traba at the Leonese court occurred under the status of hostage. However, from the shadows, the Traba family must have supported the great revolt led by Count Rodrigo Ovéquiz and his brothers, Bermudo Ovéquiz and Vela Ovéquiz, who were related to royalty (cf. "Ouecus Dux" : Lugo, 1042). From 1073 onward, they rebelled against Alfonso VI, seizing control of the Principality of Galicia (the territory of the ancient Roman provincia Lucensis ), taking Lugo (then still "caput provinciae" ), and proclaiming themselves Comes Galletiae [equivalent to being, de iure and de facto , King of Galicia] in 1075, at times jointly with his brother Vela Ovéquiz [ Duo comites magni , 1082]. Bishop Diego Peláez of Iria-Compostela also participated in this rebellion, ultimately being exiled and stripped of his office. The rebels intended to offer the crown of the Galician kingdom [then governed as a principality] to William I of Normandy and England. Direct confrontations escalated from 1085 onward, and the revolt was definitively suppressed by Alfonso VI in 1088. Alfonso VI, who never received homage from nuclear Galicia, was forced to divide the territory usurped from his brother Garcia in order to curb the separatist aspirations manifested, on one hand, by the nobility and ecclesiastical power of the principality in the north, along the limes formed by the rivers Lérez-Miño-Sil and, on the other hand, by the infanzóns (lower nobility) of the County of Portucale—descendants of the high Galician-Bercian nobility related to the monarch—. One, In the year 1090, the nuclear territory of Galicia was bestowed as a dowry upon Count Raymond of Burgundy through his union with the Infanta Urraca, daughter of Alfonso VI, under oath that their offspring would inherit the crown of Galici . Another, in 1095, under the command of Henry of Burgundy in the Portucalensis lands. Official historiography presents this as the final endpoint of rebellions in Galicia. In reality, quite the opposite occurred—especially when facts are deliberately silenced. We are actually witnessing the first act, the beginning of a series of continuous conflicts, some far more serious than this one, which eventually led the Crown of Castile [also called Spain from the definitive conquest of Toledo onward] to consider the Kingdom of Galicia as its enemy: • « Longtemps aussi les hostilités furent telles que, dans ces parages, on se traitait en ennemis, et los Gallegos ne se considéraient pas comme de España. C’étaient tellement deus peuples distincts, que dans maintes relations [...], on disait: HISPANIA et GALLÆCIA "l’Espagne et la Galice" » « For a long time, hostilities were such that, in these regions, people treated each other as enemies, and the Gallegos did not consider themselves part of España. They were truly two distinct peoples, so much so that in many accounts [...], it was said: HISPANIA et GALLÆCIA—'Spain and Galicia » ( L'abbé Camille Daux : “Le pèlerinage à Compostelle et la confrérie de pèlerins de monseigneur saint Jacques de Moissac” , 1899). • ALFONSUS VI , GALLICIÆ REX & HISPANIÆ IMPERATOR ( never received feudal homage in nuclear Galicia ) • « In Hispania rex Galliciæ Aufal » « In Spain, Aufal [Alfonsus], King of Galicia » ( Helinandus Frigidi Montis : "Chronicon" , Patrologia Latina, vol. 212, Jacques Paul-Migne, Paris 1855). • « Porro Agatha regis filia, qu æ prius fuerat Heraldo desponsata, postmodum Amfurci regi Galliciæ per procos petenti, missa est desponsanda » « Moreover, Agatha, daughter of the king, who had previously been betrothed to Harold, was later sent to be betrothed to Amfurci [Alfonso], King of Galicia, who had requested her through envoys » ( Ordericus Vitalis : "Historia ecclesiastica. LIBER QUINTUS. XIV. Alii filii Guillelmi regis bonis moribus inclarescunt. Adela eius filia" , s. XII). • « Agatha Regis filia, quæ prius fuerat Haraldo desponsata, postmodum Amfurcio Regi Galliciæ per procos petenti missa est desponsanda. Sed quæ priori sponso ad votum gavisa non est, secundo sociari valde abominata est. Anglum viderat & dilexerat. Sed Hibero conjungi nimis metuit, quem nunquam perspexerat. Omnipotenti ergo effudit precem lacrymosam, ne duceretur ipsa in Hispaniam, sed ipse potius susciperet eam. Oravit & exaudita est; obiter que Virgo defuncta est. Deinde corpus eius ad natale solum a ductoribus relatum est & in Ecclesia S. Mariæ perpetuæ Virginis in urbe Bajocensi sepultum est » « Agatha, daughter of the king, who had previously been betrothed to Harold, was later sent to be betrothed to Amfurcio [Alfonso], King of Galicia, who had requested her through envoys. But she, who had not rejoiced in her first betrothal as she wished, greatly abhorred being joined to a second. She had seen and loved an Englishman. But she greatly feared being united to a Spaniard [Hibero], whom she had never seen. Therefore, she poured forth a tearful prayer to the Almighty, that she might not be led into Hispania, but that He might rather take her to Himself. She prayed and was heard; and the Virgin died on the journey. Then her body was brought back to her native land by her escorts and buried in the Church of Saint Mary, Perpetual Virgin, in the city of Bayeux » ( Franz Dominicus Häberlin : "Familiae Augustae Wilhelmi Conquestoris regis Angliae particula" , apud A.Vandenhoeck, Gottinga, 1745). • « Adélisc, fiancée à Harold et une autre, fiancée à Alphonse , roi de Galice , en 1068 et qui mournt en route, allant consommer son mariage » « Adélisc, betrothed to Harold, and another, betrothed to Alfonso, King of Galicia, in 1068, who died on the journey while going to consummate her marriage » ( Paul-Émile Sébant : "Hommages à la mémoire de Guillaume-le-Conquérant" , Ed. Falaise, 1844, p. 51). • « Uxor quoque eius, filia Hildefonsi regis Galiciæ , cum illo tam diuturnam peregrinationem peregit, et filium, nomine Hildefonsum, Constantinopoli peperit, qui post Bertrannum fratrem suum, comitem Tolosæ, patris ius possedit, et usque hodie Gothos in Provincia perdomuit » « His wife also, daughter of Hildefonsus [Alfonso], King of Galicia, undertook with him so long a pilgrimage, and bore him a son, named Hildefonsus [Alfonso], in Constantinople, who after his brother Bertrand, Count of Toulouse, possessed his father’s rights, and even to this day has subdued the Goths in Provence » ( Ordericus Vitalis : "Historia ecclesiastica. Liber Decimus. X. Raymundus de Tolosa Constantinopoli apud Alexim imperatorem commoratur" , ss. XI-XII). • « Defuncta coniuge sua, cælibem vitam actitare renuit, sed Agnetem, filiam Guillelmi Pictavorum ducis, relictam Hildefonsi senioris, Galiciæ regis , uxorem duxit » « After his wife’s death, he refused to live a celibate life, but married Agnes, daughter of William, Duke of Poitiers, and widow of Hildefonsus the Elder, King of Galicia » ( Ordericus Vitalis : "Historia ecclesiastica. Liber Decimus. XIV. Helias comes Cenomanensem comitatum recuperat" , ss. XI-XII). ( Joseph von Aschbach : "Geschichte Spaniens und Portugals zur Zeit der Herrschaft der Almoraviden und Almohaden. 1: Die Geschichte der Almoraviden, des castlischen Kaiserreiches und der Entstehung des Königreiches Portugal" , prensa Johann David Sauerländer, Frankfurt, 1833). • « Il n’eut pas de peine à trouver des compagnons de sa fortune. La Flandre étoit si peuplée qu’à peine suffisoit elle à la nourriture de ses habitants. Il monta donc sur sa flotte et s’en alla débarquer en Galice, dans l’espérance d’enlever ce royaume aux Sarrasins. [...] Entre plusieurs fêtes où Guillaume parut déployer toute sa puissance, il n’y en eut point d’aussi éclatante que celle qu’il donna pour le mariage de la princesse Adèle , sa fille , avec le roi de Galice . [...] Mais ce qui paroît établir du-moins la vérité d’une tempête, qui le força de relâcher en Espagne, c’est la demande que le roi de Galice lui fit de la princesse sa fille: car il y avoit alors si peu de communication entre ces parties de l’Espagne et la France ou l’Angleterre, que sans un accident de cette nature, le désir de s’allier par un mariage ne seroit venu à l’un ni à l’autre des deux rois. Quand on ne supposeroit qu’un accueil favorable de la part de celui de Galice, il étoit naturel que Guillaume cherchât ensuite l’occasion de lui en marquer sa reconnoissance, et que le roi espagnol pût souhaiter à-la-fin de rendre leur commerce plus étroit, en lui faisant demander la princesse sa fille » « He had no difficulty finding companions to share his fortune. Flanders was so populous that it scarcely sufficed to feed its inhabitants. He therefore boarded his fleet and went to disembark in Galicia, in the hope of wresting this kingdom from the Saracens. [...] Among several feasts where William appeared to display all his power, none was as splendid as the one he gave for the marriage of his daughter, Princess Adèle, to the King of Galicia. [...] But what seems to establish at least the truth of a storm, which forced him to put in at Spain, is the request that the King of Galicia made to him for his daughter: for there was then so little communication between these parts of Spain and France or England, that without an accident of this nature, the desire to ally themselves by marriage would not have occurred to either of the two kings. Assuming only a favorable reception on the part of the King of Galicia, it was natural that William should subsequently seek the opportunity to show his gratitude, and that the Spanish king might eventually wish to make their ties closer by asking for his daughter » ( Antoine François Prévost : "Oeuvres de Prévost. Histoire de Guillaume le Conquérant" , Tomo XVI, Ed. Chez Boulland-Tardieu, Paris, 1823). • « Adélaïde, épouse d’Etienne, comte de Blois, dont elle eut quatre fils; Agathe , fiancée au roi de Galice , qu’elle alloit joindre pour l’épouser lorsque la mort la surprit en chemin; Adele qui remplaça sa soer en Galice, mais qui, après avoir été durement traitée par le roi son époux, ne fut pas moins malheureuse dans son veuvage de la part de ses sujets. [...] On a prétendu que Guillaume, dans un de ses nombreux passages d’Angleterre en Normandie, fut jetté par une tempête jusques sur les côtes de Galice, qu'il se fit admirer & chérir du roi de ce pays par la prudence & la bravoure avec laquelle il le servit contre les Maures [...] » « Adelaide, wife of Stephen, Count of Blois, by whom she had four sons; Agathe, betrothed to the King of Galicia, whom she was going to join to marry him when death overtook her on the way; Adele who replaced her sister in Galicia, but who, after being harshly treated by the king her husband, was no less unhappy in her widowhood at the hands of her subjects. [...] It has been claimed that William, during one of his many voyages from England to Normandy, was thrown by a storm onto the coasts of Galicia, where he was admired and cherished by the king of that land for the prudence and bravery with which he served him against the Moors [...] » ( Charles Gaspard de Toustain-Richebourg : "Essai sur l’histoire de Neustrie ou de Normandie, depuis Jules César jusqu’a Philippe-Auguste, suivi d’une esquisse" , Tomo I, Ed. Chez Dessenne & Dupuis, Paris, 1789). • « quarta & quinta ALFONSO GALACIE REGI desponsatae, nomina poenitus non audivi [...] quae Aldefonso Galicie Regi iurata nomina » « The fourth and fifth were betrothed to ALFONSO, KING OF GALICIA; I have never heard their names [...] who were pledged by oath to Alfonso, King of Galicia » ( Matthaei Paris Monachi Albanensis : "Angli, Historia maior" , excusum apud Reginaldum Vuolfium, Londres 1571). • « alterius, quae Aldefonso Galliciæ regi per nuncios iurata, virgineam mortem impetravit a Deo » « Of the other, who had been pledged by oath through envoys to Alfonso, King of Galicia, she obtained from God a virgin's death » ( Willelmus Malmesburiensis : "Gesta regum Anglorum. LIB. III, DE ADVENTU NORMANNORUM IN ANGLIAM, 276", Patrologia Latina, vol. 179, apud J.-P. Migne successores, Paris, 1899 ). ( Willelmus Malmesburiensis : "Chronicle of the kings of England. DAUGHTERS OF WILLIAM I" , by J. A. Giles, ed. Henry G. Bohn, London, 1847). • « Alphonse, Roi de Galice, Me fait, certes! grand honneur; Mais de votre bon office J’implore un autre bonheur. A la couronne royale Je préfère, san détour, La couronne virginale; Jésus seul a mon amour » « Alfonso, King of Galicia, / Truly does me great honor; / But of your kind service / I beg another happiness. / To the royal crown / I prefer, without hesitation, / The virgin crown; / Jesus alone has my love » ( Joseph Alphonse Le Flaguais : "Les neustriennes: chroniques, légendes, ballades et impresions: La fiancée du Roi de Galice [ballade XIe siècle]" , (trad.) A.M. Édouard Turquety, Ed. Derache, París, 1844, p. 137). • « In Leone civitate (1087). Charte-notice déclarant qu'Eudes, Duc de Bourgogne, avait molesté les religiuex de Saint-Valérien et de Saint-Philibert de Tournus, au sujet des bienes de Givry, qui leur avaient été donnés par la comtesse de Chalon, fille du Duc Robert, après la mort de son mari Hugues de Chalon. Cette comtesse était devenue, par son second mariage, REINE DE GALLICE ET DES ESPAGNES ( REGINA GALLICIAE & HISPANIORUM ), avait fait aux religieux divers présents et donné des ornements précieux » « In the city of León (1087). Charter-notice declaring that Odo, Duke of Burgundy, had harassed the religious of Saint-Valérien and Saint-Philibert of Tournus concerning the properties of Givry, which had been given to them by the Countess of Chalon, daughter of Duke Robert, after the death of her husband Hugh of Chalon. This countess had become, through her second marriage, QUEEN OF GALICIA AND OF THE SPAINS ( REGINA GALLICIAE & HISPANIORUM ), and had made various gifts to the religious and given precious ornaments. » ( Ernest Petit : "Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne de la race capétienne, avec des documents inédits et des pièces justificatives", T. 1, Lechevalier, Paris, 1885-1905, p. 229, 406). • « Sigisbertus autem, qui iunior omnibus erat, primus omnium duxit uxorem, filiam scilicet regis Galici æ , Brunichildem, qu æ peperit ei Childebertum regem, et Ingundem, Herminegeldi Guissigothorum regis et martyris coniugem, et Bertam, Adelberti Cantuariorum regis uxorem, atque Bovam Deo sacratam virginem » « Moreover, Sigebert, who was the youngest of all, was the first of all to take a wife, namely the daughter of the King of Galicia, Brunichild, who bore him King Childebert, and Ingund, wife of Hermenegild, king of the Visigoths and martyr, and Bertha, wife of Adalbert, king of the Kentishmen, and Bova, a virgin consecrated to God » ( Ordericus Vitalis : "Historia ecclesiastica. Liber Sextus. VII. Sequentia vitae B. Ebrulfi", ss. XI-XII). • « regnante Adephonso victoriosissimo Rege in Toleto & in Hispania & Gallecia » • « Regnante rege Adefonso in Toleto et Ispaniam et genero eius comite Regimundo in Gallecia et in Sanctarem » « While Alfonso, the most victorious King, was reigning in Toledo, and in Spain, and in Galicia » (Celanova & Lugo, ano 1088) « While King Alfonso was reigning in Toledo and in Spain, and his son-in-law Count Raymond was reigning in Galicia and in Santarém » (Celanova, ano 1095) NOTE: Dating clauses that coordinate, not subordinate, the three spheres. Galicia appears as a territory under direct rule of Ramon of Burgundy, together with Santarém, within the dynastic architecture. This form of government will continue to be used throughout this period and later when the Traba family joins the Principality. It is also worth noting that the distinction between Spain and Galicia, which began with the formation of the Suebian kingdom, is maintained. • « Ildefonsum Galleciæ regem [...] Ildefonso regi Galliciæ » « Alfonso, King of Galicia [...] to Alfonso, King of Galicia » ( "B. URBANII II PAPAE. EPISTOLAE ET PRIVILEGIAE. VI. Urbani II epistola ad Ildefonsum Galleciae regem: - Toletanam , ano 1088" . Patrologia Latina. vol. 151, apud J.-P. Migne successores, Paris, 1853). • « His temporibus Urbanus papa secundus Archiepiscopatum Toletanum primatu instituit totius Hispaniæ: ac regem Galliciæ cum omni dioecesi S. Jacobi anathematis vinculo ligauit, quod Episcopu in carcere, inaudita causa, coniecerat » « In these times, Pope Urban II established the Toledan Archbishopric as primate of all Hispania; and he bound the King of Galicia, along with the entire diocese of Saint James, with the bond of excommunication, because he had thrown a bishop into prison without a hearing » ( Francisci Taraphae Barcinonem : "De origine, ac rebus gestis Regum Hispanie liber" , Ed. Aedibus Ioannis Steelfii, Antuerpia, 1553). • « Eodem anno Saraceni Hispani, Christianos invadentes & ab Alfonso rege Galaciæ , ad sua redire compulsi, quasdam urbes, quas olim tenuerant, amiserunt » « In the same year, the Spanish Saracens, invading the Christians and being forced by Alfonso, King of Galicia, to return to their own lands, lost certain cities which they had formerly held » ( Matthaei Paris Monachi Albanensis : "Angli, Historia maior" , 1571). • « Successit Leandro Isidorus, doctrina et sanctitate nobilis; cuius corpus nostra aetate Aldefonsus rex Galliciæ Toletum transtulit, ad pondus auro comparatum » « Isidore succeeded Leander, noble in learning and holiness; whose body, in our age, Alfonso, King of Galicia, transferred to Toledo, purchased for its weight in gold » ( Willelmus Malmesburiensis : "Chronicle of the kings of England. ISIDORE GERBERT" , by J. A. Giles, ed. Henry G. Bohn, London, 1847). ( Helinandus Frigidi Montis : "Chronicon" , Patrologia Latina. vol. 212, Jacques Paul-Migne, Paris 1855). • « [...] Ille fuit annus quo Cnuto rex Danorum (ut supra diximus) interemtus est; quo Sarraceni Hispani in Christianos efferati mox ab Aldefonso rege Galliciæ ad sua redire coacti, etiam urbibus quas olim tenuerant inviti cessere » « [...] That was the year in which Cnut, King of the Danes (as we said above), was slain; in which the Spanish Saracens, raging against the Christians, were soon forced by Alfonso, King of Galicia, to return to their own lands, and even unwillingly surrendered cities which they had formerly held» ( Willelmus Malmesburiensis : "Chronicle of the kings of England. BERENGAR OF TOURS" , by J. A. Giles, ed. Henry G. Bohn, London, 1847). • « Et collegit filius Alphonsi , rex Galliciæ , gentes Christianorum in Castilia,et obviam factus est Morabitis ad Zalacam, qu æ pertinet ad regionem Badajocensem; fuitque inclytum illud proelium, quo Moslimi victoriam ab eo reportarunt, anno 481 » « And the son of Alfonso, King of Galicia, gathered the Christian peoples in Castile, and went out to meet the Moors at Zalaca, which belongs to the region of Badajoz; and that was the famous battle in which the Muslims achieved victory over him, in the year 481 [AH] » ( Marinus Hoogvliet : "Specimen e litteris orientalibus exhibens diversorum scriptorum locos de regia Aphtasidarum familia et de Ibn-Abduno poeta, ex mss. codicibus bibliothecae leidensis editos, latine redditos et annotatione illustratos" , Ed. Academiae Typographos, Leiden, 1839). NOTE: Arabic source PART III: https://budgetpixel.com/blog/the-kingdom-of-galicia-in-the-texts-413-1845-iii-the-division-of-the-realm?v=1778236110516