The Kingdom of Galicia in the texts (413- 1845) I.

I. GALLAECIA: GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY The geographical designation Hispania emerged in the time of Artemidorus (1st century BCE), following the conclusion of the Lusitanian Wars. It likely derives from a Semitic term ( is , Phoenician is , of uncertain meaning – cf. Is-pale, Bait-Is, Is-torg-is, possibly linked to the Guadalquivir River), which replaced the earlier Greek name: Iberia . fig. Eratosthenes map (III - II b.C.) Even earlier, the Greeks divided the Peninsula into two distinct regions. Iberia proper extended along the Mediterranean seaboard as far as the Hérault River in southeastern France, home to the Iberians (with Tartessos representing a special case). The broader area, Κελτική (Celtica), covered the entire western Peninsula and was inhabited by the Κελτιβέροι (“Celts of Iberia”). These should not be confused with the historical Celtiberians of the Upper Meseta – a mixed Celtic-Iberian people known from the Second Punic War – nor with the Κέλτικοι , who descend from those earlier Κελτιβέροι. fig. Artemidoros map (I b.C.) With the arrival of Roman conquest in the south, geographical names evolved according to the most prominent peoples subdued. Thus, the old Greek Κελτική was replaced by Lusitania , which occupied roughly the same original territory (from Gades to the Cantabrian Sea and much of the interior). This ethnonym arose after the prolonged war between Rome and the Lusitanians, pushing the frontier as far as the Douro River. fig. Pomponius Mela map (I a.C.) Similarly, after Decimus Brutus’s decisive victory over the Callaeci of the Douro and the subjugation of the coastal peoples between the Douro and the Miño, a new designation emerged that encompassed the entire northwestern quadrant: Callaecia . (A parallel process occurred in the Upper Meseta, where “Celtiberian” was applied even to peoples outside the Ebro Valley mixed group.) Whereas the Bracari or Artabri had once been called Lusitanians, they now became generically known as Callaeci (a people that later vanished as such). Over time, the name designated the full Roman province, divided into three conventus: Bracara (Braga), Lucus (Lugo), and Asturica (Astorga). fig. Ptolemy map (II a.C.) This geographical space remained remarkably stable with the arrival of the Suebi and the establishment of their kingdom, which naturally adopted the name of the province: Gallaecia (already linked to Gallia). The Suevic kingdom extended eastward to the Pisuerga River, following the Douro, and by conquest reached as far as the River Lamego (between the Tagus and the Douro). This territory – whether as the Suevic kingdom or as an autonomous Visigothic province – retained the same designation until the fragmentation into the kingdoms of Portugal, Castile, Galicia, and León after the reign of Alfonso VII. This geographical and political Gallaecia was far more than a Roman administrative label. It became a living reality, reflected in European literature, diplomacy, and collective consciousness for centuries – as we shall see in the following sections. The Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula: Gallaecia in Remote Antiquity The northwestern corner of the Iberian Peninsula, which we call Greater Gallaecia, was widely known and visited from the most remote antiquity. Its shores were already frequented by Phoenician traders as early as the 1st millennium BCE, in search of gold, tin, and women. The region was also renowned and sought after for its hyperthermal springs. Gallaecia was therefore a sufficiently well-defined and described space, requiring only a few indications to locate it on any map. Chief among these was the toponym Brigantia , referring to the principal city – the ancient Magnus Portus Artabrorum de Luco , likely the present-day A Coruña. This was one of the main ports for maritime trade in goods between northern Europe and the Mediterranean, dating back well beyond the Atlantic Bronze Age. Equally significant was the Farum , the lighthouse built by the Romans, rising to 80 metres in height on an equally elevated promontory. Visible from afar, it served not only as a marker for the proximity of the port of Brigantia, but also as a beacon signalling the turn into the Atlantic Ocean. fig. The Anglo-Saxon 'Cotton' world map (c. 1040): BRIGANTIA, today A Coruña This enduring geographical and cultural identity is vividly captured in the words of Paulus Orosius (early 5th century AD), who describes the region with remarkable precision: “The second angle extends toward the northwest, where Brigantia, a city of Gallaecia, is situated. There stands the tallest lighthouse, one of the few truly remarkable works of engineering, erected as a mirror for Britain [...] The island of Hibernia lies between Britain and Hispania, stretching farther northward from the southwest. Its forward parts face the Cantabrian Ocean and look out across a wide expanse toward Brigantia, the city of Gallaecia, which confronts it from the southwest to the northwest.” This perception of the northwestern Atlantic as a fierce and ominous sea is echoed in early medieval sources. Paul the Deacon, in his Historia Langobardorum (Book I, ca. 763 AD), records the belief that: “They affirm [that the ocean] is fierce and for this reason very deep between the island of Britain and the province of Gallaecia.” ( Pauli Historia Langobardorum , Lib. I, MGH, Rerum Germanicarum, Hannover, 1878, p. 56) Paul’s description of the ocean as a “vorago” – a fierce, deep abyss – reflects the real dangers of the Atlantic coast: powerful tides, sudden storms, and dramatic currents. These accounts reinforced Gallaecia’s image as a remote, almost mythical frontier of the Roman and post-Roman world – a land reached only by the bravest sailors, marked by its towering lighthouse and guarded by an ocean as formidable as it was beautiful. The Administrative and Ecclesiastical Division of Gallaecia The northwestern Iberian Peninsula, which we call Greater Gallaecia, formed one of the six provinces of the Roman and Visigothic administrative system, alongside Baetica, Lusitania, Tarraconensis, Carthaginensis, and (later) Narbonensis. This division remained in force from the time of Polemius Silvius (ca. 385 AD) until the Visigothic period. The province or kingdom of Galicia (Galliciense) occupied virtually the entire northwestern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula. As Sigebert of Gembloux states in his Chronica (covering the years 718–732): “The kingdom of the third part of the Spains, which is called that of the Galicians, which neither the Visigoths at that time nor the Saracens afterwards were able to subdue, still endures intact, and remains impregnable under the protection of God and the faith.” (Sigberti Gemblacensis: Chronica , MGH, T. VI, Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1844, p. 330) The Cantabrian mountain range was an extension of the Pyrenees, and at its western end lived the Astures: “Where the yoke of the Pyrenees, not far from the second Ocean, descends toward the north, the Astures inhabit a portion of Gallaecia [...]” (Ludovicus Nonius: Hispania sive populorum, urbium, insularum ac fluminum in ea accuratior descriptio , Officina Hieronymi Verdussi, Antwerp, 1607, p. 144) In the time of Isidore of Seville (7th century), Cantabria was included within Galicia: “The regions are parts of the provinces [...] as in Galicia: Cantabria, Asturia.” (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae ) Asturias itself belonged to the diocese of Britonia (Bretoña): “[Lucus]: XIII.1. To the see of the Britons belong the churches that are among the Britons, together with the monastery of Maximus, and those that are in Asturia.” (F. Glorié: Parrochiale Sueuum , Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina CLXXV, Turnhout, 1965, pp. 143 ss.) The ecclesiastical divisions drawn from the Visigothic conciliar administrative policy, as reflected in the Nomina civitatum Ispanie sedes episcopalium de Gallicia , list the following sees in Galicia: Bracara , Dumio, Portucale (including Magneto from 580), Tude, Auriense, Lucu, Brittania, Asturica, Iria, and possibly Beteke. (Codex Ovetense del Escorial, ca. 780 AD) Bracara sedes : Dumio, Portucale, Tude, Auriense, Lucu, Britonia, Asturica et Iria. (Mozarabic Codex, National Library of Madrid, 9th century) “It [Spain] has six provinces with episcopal sees: (...) The fourth province is GALLICIA: Bracara metropolis, Dumio, Portucale, Tude, Auriense, Yria, Luco, Bretonia et Asturica.” (Chronica Albeldense, III.10) fig. HISPANIA & GALLECIA (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae ) The Economy From the early medieval period onward, Gallaecia (Galicia) was recognized not only as a fertile and productive land, but also as a significant exporter of a wide range of goods. Its economy thrived on agriculture, fishing, linen production, and other resources, making it a key trading partner for northern Europe — particularly Flanders, where Galician linen was highly valued for the production of fine cloth (lienzo). 1. Fertility and Agricultural Wealth Isidore of Seville, in his Etymologiae (Book XIV, Chapter II, early 7th century), already highlighted the exceptional productivity of Gallaecia: “Et Gallæcia et Hispania non solum in vineis, sed etiam in agris fructuosae sunt” “Both Gallaecia and Hispania are fruitful not only in vineyards, but also in fields.” (Isidori Hispalensis Etymologiae, ed. José Oroz Reta & Manuel A. Marcos Casquero, BAC, Madrid, 2004) This reputation for fertile lands continued into later centuries. 2. Praise in Carolingian Poetry Theodulf of Orléans, a Visigothic scholar at the court of Charlemagne, wrote in his Carmina (Book VI, Verse V, ca. 798–818): “Galliciique soli veniat si cultor opimus, Finitimis praestat qui bona pulchra suis” “If the richest farmer comes from Galician soil, he surpasses his neighbours in the beautiful goods he produces.” (Theodulfi Aurelianensis Episcopi: Carmina, Lib. VI. V, Patrologia Latina, Vol. CV, ed. J.-P. Migne, Paris, 1864, p. 382) 3. Exports to Flanders (13th–14th centuries) Flemish sources explicitly list Galicia as a major supplier of high-value goods. Warnkönig’s Histoire de la Flandre (mid-19th century compilation of medieval trade records) records: “Du royaume de Galice vient sains, vif-argent, vin, cuirs, peleterie et laine” “From the kingdom of Galicia come salt, quicksilver (mercury), wine, leather, furs, and wool.” (Warnkönig: Histoire de la Flandre et de ses institutions civiles et politiques jusqu'à l'année 1305, t. II, pp. 514–515) Galicia and Gelderland: An Early Commercial Link in Late Medieval English Literature One of the most striking and little-known commercial connections appears in the anonymous Croxton Play of the Sacrament (ca. 1491), an English miracle play. The merchant character declares: “In GYLDRE and in GALYS have I bought and sold.” Here, GALYS clearly refers to Galicia (the standard Middle English form for Galice/Galys), while GYLDRE is almost certainly a variant spelling of Gueldre / Gelderland (the historic County and later Duchy of Guelders, modern Gelderland province in the Netherlands). This pairing is highly significant: In the 15th century, Galicia was one of Western Europe’s largest exporters of raw flax (linen fibre), salted fish (especially sardines), wine, salt, and wool. Gelderland, an important agricultural and textile-processing region in the eastern Low Countries, imported large quantities of Galician flax to produce mid-to-high quality cloth for domestic use and re-export to England, Germany, and Scandinavia. Merchants from England (like the one in the Croxton Play) frequently traded through Flemish and Dutch ports (Antwerp, Dordrecht), making Galicia and Gelderland complementary destinations in the same Atlantic commercial network. This is likely one of the earliest literary mentions in English of Galicia as a specific trading partner alongside Gelderland — a connection rarely highlighted in general histories of medieval trade, which tend to focus on Flanders (Bruges, Ghent) or Portugal. It underscores that Galicia was perceived in late medieval England not as a marginal province of “Spain”, but as Galys — a distinct kingdom and economic actor in its own right. Merovingian and Carolingian Coin Finds in Lugo and Santiago de Compostela: Evidence of Early Frankish Connections in Gallaecia (6th–9th centuries) Excavations in the city of Lugo (particularly around the Roman walls and the historic centre) have uncovered a significant quantity of early medieval coinage: Merovingian coins (6th–7th centuries): gold tremisses and denarii from Frankish kings (e.g., Clotaire II, Dagobert I). Carolingian coins (8th–9th centuries): silver denarii of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, in notable numbers. Anglo-Saxon coins from Northumbria (8th–9th centuries): a smaller number of denarii from kings such as Offa of Mercia or Eadberht of Northumbria. Only a single Arabic coin has been found in these contexts, in contrast to the dozens of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon pieces. These finds indicate that Lugo was an important centre of exchange in northwestern Hispania, with direct commercial and monetary connections to the Frankish kingdom and Anglo-Saxon England. Similar evidence appears in the deepest archaeological layers of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (8th–9th centuries), where Carolingian silver denarii (Charlemagne and Louis the Pious) have been recovered, alongside late Visigothic and some Anglo-Saxon coins. The presence of Carolingian coinage in the foundational layers of the cathedral confirms that Santiago de Compostela was already a site of wealth and international exchange before the official “discovery” of the Apostle’s tomb (ca. 813–830). Early Frankish Presence in Gallaecia During the Suevic Period (6th–7th centuries) The Frankish presence in Gallaecia dates back to the Suevic kingdom (409–585) and the early Visigothic period. The Parrochiale Sueuum (6th century), a Visigothic ecclesiastical document listing dioceses and monasteries in the Suevic kingdom, already mentions places such as Francos and Francelos within the territory of Gallaecia. Fig., THE FRANKISH PRESENCE : GALICIAN PLACE NAMES FRANCOS, FRANCELOS, FRANCIA & FRANZA These toponyms (Francos, Francelos, Francia, Franza) — formed as accusative plurals, a common pattern for ethnic settlements in the Iberian Peninsula — are concentrated almost exclusively north of the Miño River (nearly 40 documented cases). They cluster around royal or noble monasteries (e.g., Samos, Carboeiro, Ferreira de Pantón, Ferreira de Pallares) and natural ports/refuges on the northern coast (e.g., Ría de Ortigueira, Ladriño, Espasante). This distribution suggests early Frankish (likely Merovingian, 6th–7th centuries) settlements in Gallaecia, possibly merchants, refugees, or allied communities integrated by the Suevic or Visigothic authorities. The presence of Frankish merchants in Lugo is documented in the 7th-century Vita Sancti Fructuosi , where Saint Fructuosus attempts to flee to the Holy Land aboard Frankish trading ships docked there or in the nearby port of Burgo (A Coruña). No other region in the Iberian Peninsula shows such a high density of Frankish toponyms, highlighting Gallaecia's unique role as a bridge between the Visigothic/Suevic northwest and the Frankish north. II. SUEBI AND BRITONI IN GALLAECIA: The birth of the first kingdom of Western Europe (411-809). Suevic Kingdom (also known as Kingdom of the Suebi or Kingdom of Gallaecia)The Suevic Kingdom was a Germanic kingdom established in the early 5th century in the Roman province of Gallaecia (roughly modern Galicia and northern Portugal). It is widely regarded as the first independent medieval kingdom to emerge in Western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.Foundation (409–411)In 409 AD, during the Crossing of the Rhine, Germanic tribes including the Suebi, Vandals, and Alans invaded the Iberian Peninsula. The Suebi, led by King Hermeric, settled in Gallaecia after a foedus (treaty) with the Roman authorities in 411, establishing their kingdom in the northwestern corner of Hispania.Expansion and Key Rulers Hermeric (r. c. 409–438): Founder; signed the initial settlement pact. Rechila (r. 438–448): Expanded the kingdom southward into Lusitania and parts of Baetica; known for military campaigns against remaining Roman forces. Rechiar (r. 448–456): Son of Rechila; the first Germanic king to convert to Catholic Christianity (around 448–449), preceding the Visigothic conversion by over a century. He minted coins bearing the legend "RECCIARIVS REX", one of the earliest examples of royal coinage in post-Roman Europe. Rechiar expanded further but was defeated and killed by the Visigoths at the Battle of the Urbicus River in 456. Religion and Society The Suebi adopted Nicene Catholicism early, distinguishing them from the Arian Visigoths. This facilitated integration with the Hispano-Roman population. The kingdom's ecclesiastical organization influenced later structures, with important synods held in Bracara Augusta (modern Braga), which became the kingdom's main center.The society was a mix of Suebic Germanic settlers and the local Romano-Gallo population, with limited but notable linguistic and toponymic influences (e.g., some Galician place names with possible Germanic roots like -bre or -elle endings).Decline and Fall (456–585)After Rechiar's defeat, the kingdom lost southern territories and entered a period of instability, vassalage to the Visigoths, and internal strife. It regained independence at times but was finally conquered by the Visigothic king Leovigild in 585, who incorporated it into the Visigothic Kingdom.LegacyThe Suevic Kingdom is notable as: The first post-Roman kingdom in Western Europe to achieve stability. The earliest Germanic kingdom to officially adopt Catholicism. A key chapter in Galician history, with lasting cultural and institutional influences in the region. For a detailed and up-to-date exploration featuring experts from various European and Spanish universities, see the acclaimed 2019 Galician TV documentary series "O Reino Suevo da Galiza / El Reino Suevo de Galicia" (directed by Simón Casal, produced by CRTVG -two chapters-). It combines historical analysis with reflections on historiography and is considered one of the best audiovisual resources on the topic: https://www.agalega.gal/videos/category/16360-o-reino-suevo-de-galiciaa The book IN TEMPORE SUEBORUM. El tiempo de los Suevos en la Gallaecia (411-585). El primer reino medieval de Occidente. Volumen de Estudios (coordinated by Jorge López Quiroga, Diputación Provincial de Ourense, 2018, ~480 pages) is a spectacular scholarly companion to the landmark exhibition held in Ourense (2017–2018). Sponsored by the Ourense Provincial Council and supported by the Xunta de Galicia, it gathers cutting-edge studies from international experts on the Suevic Kingdom—the first stable medieval kingdom in post-Roman Western Europe.Key highlights: Historiographical overviews challenging traditional narratives (López Quiroga on the Suevi's origins and "history without beginning"). Archaeological insights into burials, monasteries (e.g., rupestrian sites like San Pedro de Rocas), and material culture. Emphasis on the kingdom's Catholic conversion (pioneering under Martin of Dumio), the Councils of Braga, and resistance to Visigothic conquest in 585. Rich visuals: maps, artifacts, reconstructions that vividly illustrate Galicia's distinct identity as Gallaecia. This volume reinforces the political duality of Galicia vs. Hispania from Suevic times onward, drawing on primary evidence to counter centralized Spanish historiographical biases. Available on Academia.edu (link: https://www.academia.edu/41829783/... ), it's essential reading for anyone exploring the true roots of Galician sovereignty. From the Suevic Kingdom: The Birth of Galicia's Distinct Political-Administrative DualityFrom the Suevic kingdom in Galicia (411–585) emerged a clear political-administrative duality between Spain/Hispania and Galicia as two differentiated national entities—sometimes in opposition. This broad concept of Galicia (Gallaecia / Galliciense Regnum) persisted until at least the 13th century and nominally beyond, in the later nuclear Kingdom of Galicia. Official Spanish historiography largely ignores this duality for obvious ideological and ahistorical reasons: it shatters the fabricated narrative of an eternal, unified Spanish national identity.1. The Councils of Braga (561 and 572): Ecclesiastical Consolidation of the Suevic KingdomThe Councils of Braga were pivotal for organizing the Galician Church, combating Priscillianism and Arianism, and establishing an autonomous metropolitan structure centered in Bracara (Braga), the Suevic capital. First Council of Braga (561), convened under King Ariamir (successor to Chararic), gathered Galician bishops to address persistent Priscillianist heresies and disciplinary issues. It marked a step toward full Catholic integration, with participation from figures like Mailoc (bishop of Britonia) and likely involvement in drafting by Martin of Dumio. Second Council of Braga (572), presided over by King Miro with bishops present, deepened Church-monarchy ties, establishing liturgical, moral, and missionary norms. It reinforced Galician ecclesiastical autonomy (distinct from Visigothic Toledo) and completed the kingdom's Catholic conversion—preceding the Visigoths' under Recaredo in 589. Sources: Acts of the Councils (editions in Monumenta Germaniae Historica); references in Gregory of Tours and Isidore of Seville confirm this independent structure.2. King Miro and Saint Martin of Dumio: The King and the Apostle of ConversionKing Miro (r. ca. 570–583) closely collaborated with the Catholic Church, convening the Second Council of Braga and supporting religious reform. He ruled during expansion and tensions with the Visigoths (Leovigild attempted invasion in 576) and died shortly after defeat in 583.Saint Martin of Dumio (Martin Dumiensis/Bracarensis, ca. 510–580), from Pannonia, was the chief architect of the Suevi's conversion from Arianism to Catholicism. Arriving in Gallaecia around 550–560, he founded the monastery of Dumio (near Braga), served as bishop of Dumio and later Braga, preached, reformed churches, and wrote works such as De correctione rusticorum (against lingering pagan/Celtic superstitions), Formula vitae honestae, and treatises on pride and vainglory—addressed to King Miro. Isidore of Seville praises him as the "most holy pontiff" who converted the Suevi from Arian impiety to the Catholic faith, instituted the rule of faith, and reformed churches. Gregory of Tours highlights his apostolic zeal.This pioneering conversion made the Suevic kingdom the first stable Germanic Catholic realm in Western Europe, strengthening Galician identity as distinct.Key Primary Sources Confirming Galicia as a Kingdom Hydatius (Chronicon, a. 438): "Suevi cum parte plebis Gallæciæ, cui adversabantur, pacis iura confirmant." (The Suevi confirm the peace treaty with the part of the Galician people they were opposed to.) Gregory of Tours (De miraculis S. Martini, Liber I, Cap. XI): "De rege Galliciæ populoque conversis, sive, de Suevis." (On the conversion of the king and people of Galicia, or of the Suevi.) John of Biclaro (Chronicon, a. 570–584): Refers to Miro as king "in provincia Gallæciæ" and Leovigild's disruptions "in Gallæcia suevorum fines"; Audeca seizes the Suevic kingdom in Galicia with tyranny (a. 584). Isidore of Seville (Historia Suevorum): Mentions the kingdom in "Gallæcia" and residual resistance; also notes Gunderic, king of the Vandals, reigning "in Gallæciæ partibus" for 18 years. Chronica ad Sebastianum: Even in Asturian sources (with caution due to later interpolations), Egica associates his son Wittiza to the throne and orders him to reside in Tui "in provincia Gallecie" so the father holds the Gothic kingdom and the son the Suevic one. Continuity in Later Chronicles: Padre Juan de Mariana's Recognition. The Jesuit historian Juan de Mariana (Historia General de España, 1592–1623 editions) explicitly acknowledges Galicia as a distinct kingdom/province, even under Visigothic and Asturian rule, based on ancient sources. Chindasvinto and Recesvinto (7th century): Recesvinto co-reigned with his father Chindasvinto "in the kingdom of Galicia" ("en el reino de Galicia"), showing Galicia retained separate jurisdiction or governance within the Visigothic realm. Egica and Wittiza (late 7th–early 8th century): Egica placed Wittiza in Tui (province of Galicia) to manage the "regnum sueuorum," reinforcing the Galicia–Spain duality. Silo and Alfonso II the Chaste (8th century): Silo as "rex Gallæciæ"; Alfonso (associated by Bermudo/Veremundo) later reigns alone as "Alphonsus rex Gallæciæ," governing partly from Lugo. This confirms Galicia as a recognized kingdom with continuity post-Visigothic era. Mariana, while writing in a context of Hispanic unity, preserves this duality: Galicia is not a mere province but a differentiated national entity—resistant, autonomous, and commercially linked (Flanders, England)—that endured nominally until the 19th century. Official historiography minimizes it to uphold a centralized Castilian–Visigothic narrative, but sources like Mariana and the primaries reveal the truth: Galicia as an impregnable Galliciense Regnum. • « Suevi cum parte PLEBIS GALLÆCIÆ, cui adversabantur, PACIS iura confirmant »- ( Ydacius : "Chronicon 14, A. 438", séc. V). • « CAPUT XI. De REGE GALLICIÆ POPULOQUE conversis, sive, de Suevis » ( Gregorius Turonensis : "Sancti Georgii Florentii Gregorii Episcopi Turonensis opera omnia. De miraculis S. Martini, Liber I. 11. Caput XI", (ed) Theoderici Ruinart, Franciscus Muguet typographica, Paris, 1699, pp. 1012ss.). • « De conciliis in Galliciæ et Hispaniæ regnis » ( Patrologia : “S. Leonis Magni. P. Cacciari Exercitationes in S. Leonis Magnis Opera: De Priscillianistarum Haeresi et Historia Liber Unicus”, La Barriere d’Enfer, Paris, 1846, p. 1044). • « De synodis Asturicensi, Cellenensi, et Bracarensi IN GALLICIÆ REGNIS habitis » ( Patrologia : “S. Leonis Magni. P. Cacciari Exercitationes in S. Leonis Magnis Opera: De Priscillianistarum Haeresi et Historia Liber Unicus”, La Barriere d’Enfer, Paris, 1846, p. 1054) . • « Concilio Tertio Toletano, in Hispania, Gothi Arriani, Episcopi, Presbyteri & primores illius gentis ad Ecclesiam Catholicam redeuntes, in suis Anathematismis coram Episcopis Catholicis totius HISPANIÆ & GALLICIÆ, pronunciatis, anathema dicunt ei quicunq; libellum detestabilem duodecimo anno Leouigildi Regis ab ipsis Gothis tum Arrianis editum, in quo continetur Romanorum ad Arrianam hæresim traductio & in Gloria Patri per Filiuin in Spiritu Sancto & male abiis instituta continentur, pro vero habuerit » ( Ioanne Filesaco : "De Sacra Episcoporum Auctoritate Seu Ad Tit. de Off. Iud. Ord. lib. I. Decretal. Commentarius. Concilium Toletanum III", Macaeus, París, 1605, p. 16). • « Sancta synodus episcoporum totius HISPANIÆ, GALLIÆ ET GALLÆTIÆ in urbe Toletana præcepto principis Reccaredi » ( "Chronicon Ioannis Biclarensis [a. 590]" , Universität Giessen Digital versión: Thomas Gloning, XII/2002). • « Octavo Idus Maii synodos magna XXVII episcoporum HISPANIE, GALLIE ET GALLICIÆ, contrahitur Toleti in templo sanctæ Mariæ. Inter istos erant octo metropolitani, Massona Emeritensis, Euphemius Carpetanus, Leander Hispalensis, Nigecius Narbonensis, Nitigesius Lucensis per procuratorem Pantardum, Pantardus Bracarensis, Euphemius Tarraconensis, Dominicus Carthaginis Spartariæ, Leandro concionem habente » ( Maximus Caesaraugustanus : "Chronicon [col. 630D, ano 590]", Patrologia Latina, vol. LXXX, , J.-P. Migne, París, 1863, p. 628). • « Simili locutione Concilium Toletanum tertium , quod solis Hispanis Episcopis constabat, appellatur uniuersalis Synodus , c.18. Concilium Toletanum IV. itidem Concilium generale, cum soli Sacerdotes, 1. Episcopi HISPANIÆ & GALLICIÆ, apud Toletum conuenissent » ( Ioanne Filesaco : "De Sacra Episcoporum Auctoritate Seu Ad Tit. de Off. Iud. Ord. lib. I. Decretal. Commentarius. Concilium Toletanum IV", Macaeus, Parisiis, 1605, p. 146). • « Nam et si quilibet infra fines SPANIE, GALLIE, GALLECIE vel in cunctis provinciis, que ad aditionem nostri regiminis pertinent, scandalum in quacumque parte contra gentem vel patriam nostrumque regnum vel etiam successorum nostrorum moverit aut movere voluerit, dum hoc in vicinis loci ipsius partibus iuxta numerum miliorum suprascriptum nuntiatum extiterit, aut etiam specialiter quisquis ille a sacerdotibus, clericis, ducibus, comitibus, thiufadis, vicariis vel quibuslibet personis ordinem suprascriptum admonitus fuerit [...] » ( "Lex Visigothorum IX.2.8" , (ed.) Karolus Zeumer, MGH, Leges Nationum Germanicarum, T. I Leges Visigothorum, Hannover & Leipzig, 1902, pp. 372-373). The Bretons in Galicia – Britonia, Mailoc, and the Echoes of Maximus and Arthur The Arrival of the Bretons (5th–6th centuries) The Bretons (insular Britons) arrived in Galicia fleeing the Anglo-Saxon invasions in Britain. It was an organized migration, possibly agreed upon with the Suebi, who controlled the northwest. Sources: Parrochiale Suevum [ PS ] (ca. 572): Lists the diocese of Britonia as independent, with its own bishop (Mailoc/Maeloc). Second Council of Braga (572): Mailoc signs as bishop Britonensis . Council of Lugo (569): Mentions British presence. They arrived in waves (estimates: 5,000–10,000 people, including clergy and nobles), settling in the northwest (Lugo, Mondoñedo, Foz, A Pastoriza). Place names such as Bretoña (Pastoriza, Lu.; Sober, Lu.; Curro-Barro, Lu.), from Britonia / Bretonia [ PS ](572) or Bretios (Sirvián-Guntín, Lu.) from the galician med. PN Bretenos / Bretonos , are direct witnesses. The Privilege of the Diocese of Britonia Britonia was one of the largest dioceses on the peninsula (over 10,000 km²), with 13 parishes and the Monasterio Maximi as its center. Why so large? Suebic concession (King Miro, 6th century) to the Bretons as an autonomous ethno-religious group. They assisted in the Suebi’s conversion to Catholicism (561). They brought organized clergy and Celtic tradition, enriching the Galician Church. The Monasterio Maximi (genitive “of Maximus”) is the curious point. A late Roman name, rare in a Breton context. Speculative hypothesis: It could have been founded by Emperor Magnus Clemens Maximus (383–388), the Hispanic usurper who executed Priscillian (385) and had a strong presence in Gallaecia. If so, it would have been a late Roman anti-Priscillianist monastery that the Bretons reused 150–200 years later. No direct proof exists, but the name + Priscillianist context makes the coincidence highly suggestive. Mailoc: the Brittonic Bishop of Britonia (572) Mailoc (Maeloc) signs the Second Council of Braga (572) and possibly the Council of Lugo (569). A purely Brittonic name ( Magilo-kos = “prince/chief”), unique in Hispania outside Britonia. Curious coincidence: Gildas ( De Excidio Britanniae , ca. 540) mentions a Mailoc as a relative or brother. Gildas writes in the period of final British resistance against the Saxons, when the myth of Arthur begins to crystallize. If it were the same person (or family), Mailoc could have brought to Galicia the oral British tradition, including the “sleeping king.” No direct textual proof, but the identical name + migration context makes the hypothesis highly plausible. The Legend of Arthur in Valle de Brea (Mondoñedo) In the Cathedral of Mondoñedo (successor to San Martiño de Mondoñedo / Britonia), a 12th-century text was discovered two years ago: “[e]t in illa spelunca in Valle de Brea ubi Arturus rex Britanorum dormit in perpetuum” (“and in that cave in the Valley of Brea where Arthur, king of the Britons, sleeps forever”) Mondoñedo was anciently called Vallibria / Valle de Brea . That the myth of the sleeping King Arthur appears precisely in the heart of the former Brittonic diocese is no coincidence. It could be the echo of a tradition brought by the Bretons, who found in Galicia a refuge where the “sleeping king” could continue to sleep. Speculative Conclusion There is a possible chain (unproven, but coherent): Maximus founds the Monasterio Maximi (ca. 385–388) as an anti-Priscillianist symbol. The Bretons arrive (5th–6th centuries), led by Mailoc (possible brother of Gildas), and reuse the site. They bring with them the oral British tradition, which crystallizes into the myth of Arthur. In the 12th century, in Valle de Brea (Mondoñedo), that tradition is fixed in writing. No direct documentary proof exists, but the coincidences (names, place names, migration context) are too strong to be pure chance. The Kingdom of Galicia in the Texts (8th–11th Centuries): Galicia as the Core Regnum, León as a Temporary Seat After the Visigothic collapse (711) and the beginning of Asturian resistance under Pelayo (718), Galicia (Gallæcia, Gallecia, Galletiae, Gallicia) remained a distinct geographical, political, and ecclesiastical entity in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. The texts from this period do not speak of an independent “Kingdom of León”; León appears only as a civitas (city) or sedis (temporary royal seat) within the regnum Galletiae. Galicia continued as the nuclear kingdom, inheriting Suevic-Visigothic traditions, with its metropolitan see in Lugo (successor to Braga) and pilgrimage center in Santiago. 1. Galicia as a Distinct Kingdom from Hispania (8th–9th Centuries) Asturian chronicles and external sources recognize Galicia as the heart of the Christian kingdom in the northwest, separated from Hispania (Muslim-controlled or central-southern territories of the peninsula). Chronicon Albeldense (ca. 881) : “et in Gallecia regnavit” (and in Galicia he reigned). Galicia is synonymous with the main territory of the Asturian kingdom. Chronicle of Alfonso III (9th century, Rotensis version) : “Ramiro went to the city of Lugo in Galicia.” Lugo is an administrative center; Galicia is the regnum. Annales Regni Francorum (ca. 798) : “Hadefonsus rex Galleciae et Asturiae” (Alfonso, king of Galicia and Asturias). Galicia takes precedence in the royal title. Beatus manuscripts maps (copies from 8th–11th centuries, e.g., Beato de Valladolid) : “Gallecia” labeled autonomously in the northwest, separated from “Spania” or “Hispania.” (Insert here the corresponding Beatus map, showing the autonomous label “Gallecia” in the northwest quadrant.) fig. Gallecia vs. Hispania Mapa mundi das Etimologias encomendadas por Sancha I, emperatriz da Galiza (c. 1047) 2. León as Civitas and Sedis within Gallecia (9th–10th Centuries) León, repopulated under Ordoño I (mid-9th century), becomes a royal seat from Ordoño II (910 onward), but diplomas and chronicles continue to call the kingdom Galletiae, not Legionensis. Royal diplomas (9th–11th centuries) : 912: “Adefonso regi in ciuitate Legionensi” (Alfonso the king in the city of León). 929: “domnus Adefonsus legionense sedis” (lord Alfonso of the Leonese seat). 940: “Ranimirus rex in legionem ciuitas” (Ramiro king in the city of León). 982: “Ranemirus in civitate regis sedis Legionem” (Ramiro in the royal seat city of León). 1032: “Regnante Sanctius rex in sedis Legionensis” (reigning King Sancho in the Leonese seat). 1042: “regnante principe Fernando… in sede Legionis” (reigning Prince Fernando… in the seat of León). 1108: “regnante rege Adefonso in Legio civitas” (reigning King Alfonso in the city of León). León is consistently “civitas” or “sedis” (seat), never “regnum Legionensis” in this period. Johannes Strauchius (1674, citing medieval sources) : “Ovetum urbs Gallæciæ, olim Regia… Principes Galleciæ sedem transtulerant Legionem” (Oviedo, ancient royal city of Galicia… The princes of Galicia transferred the seat to León). Galicia is the matrix entity. 3. Internal Divisions: Galicia vs. Terra de Foris (11th Century) When the kingdom is divided, it is partitioned between Galletiae (core Galician territory) and Terra de Foris (land from outside/expansion territory, with León as seat). Compostelan diploma (ca. 924, after Ordoño II) : “post discessum huius vite genitoris mei paravit se divisio inter Galletiae et Terra de Foris… fratrem meum domno Santio principem in regno constituto” (after the departure from this life of my father, a division was prepared between Galicia and the land from outside… my brother don Sancho constituted prince in the kingdom). Sancho Ordóñez receives Galicia proper (crowned in Santiago); Alfonso IV receives Terra de Foris (León as seat). Galicia is the “regno” (kingdom); Terra de Foris is the periphery. fig. Mapamundi del Beato de Girona (c. 975) 4. Galicia as a Parallel Nation and Ecclesiastical Province to Hispania (10th–11th Centuries) Papal letters, councils, and European chronicles treat Galicia as a separate entity on par with Hispania. Hadrianus I ( 793-794 , Epistola Hadriani I. Papae ad Episcopos Hispaniae contra Elipandum Toletanae Sedis Episcopum ) : “Adrianus papa, sanctæ catholicæ atque apostolicæ primæque pontifex sedis, dilectissimis fratribus et consacerdotibus nostris, Galliciis Spaniisque ecclesiis praesidentibus, in roseo Christi sanguine salutem” – Galliciis Spaniis “Galicia and Spain” as separate areas. Paulinus Aquileiensis Patriacha ( Libellus Sacrosyllabus contra Elipandum ): “Placuit igitur sancto venerandoque Concilio, quatenus hic libellus pro causa fidei ad Prouincias Galliciæ ac Spaniarum mitti deberet ob noxios resecandos errores, specialiter autem ad Elipandum, Tolitane sedis episcopum, in quo omnis huius negotii constat materia questionum M. R, In nomine patris et filii et Spiritus sancti” Gregory VII (1076, Epistola XVIII) : “in Hispania et Gallicia” – decrees the Roman rite to be observed in “Hispania et Gallicia” as separate areas. cf. : Gratianus (Decretum, citing Toledo XII, 681) : “pontificibus Hispaniae atque Galliciae” (bishops of Hispania and Galicia). Galicia has its own provincial privileges. Toledo XIII Council (683) : “Galliciae atque omnes prouincias Hispaniae” – Galicia mentioned first. 5. Galicia as a European Nation (11th–Early 12th Century Echoes) In lists of Christian nations, Galicia is equated with England, France, etc. Ekkehardi Uraugiensis chronica (1095) : “ex Aquitania… Anglia, Scotia… Galicia, Wasconia, Gallia…” (from Aquitaine… England, Scotland… Galicia, Gascony, France…). Otto of Freising, Chronica (12th century) : Galicia as a nation responding to the crusade call. 6. The Historia Silense (ca. 1118): Galicia as the Principal Kingdom to Legitimize Urraca Written to legitimize Urraca I (1109–1126) and her son Alfonso VII (king of Galicia from childhood), the Silense prioritizes Galicia as the cradle of power, while León is a secondary seat. Galicia is repeatedly the “regnum Gallecie” or “Galleciensium principis” (prince of the Galicians); León is “sedis Legionensis” or the royal pantheon (San Isidoro). The text avoids predominantly calling it the “Kingdom of León”; the legacy is Galician, with coronations in Santiago and Galician support for Urraca. fig. Liber Floridus de Lambert of Saint Omer (c.1120) Conclusion From the 8th to the 11th centuries, Galicia is not an appendix of León or Hispania; it is the nuclear regnum (Galletiae), with León functioning as a civitas/sedis in Terra de Foris. Primary texts—diplomas, chronicles, papal letters, councils—consistently keep Galicia differentiated, with its own identity until Alfonso VI (1065–1109), who reunifies but still uses titles like “rex Legionensis et Gallecie.” The Historia Silense, legitimizing Urraca, confirms that Galicia was the true heart of the kingdom, not León. Miscellanea: References to the Kingdom of Galicia in European Literature (Medieval to Modern Periods) The Legenda Aurea sanctorum (Golden Legend), written by Jacobus de Voragine (ca. 1229–1298), was the most widely read book in medieval Europe after the Bible. William Caxton’s 1483 printed edition translated it from Latin into English and helped spread it across languages. Galicia, as a Christian kingdom in the northwest, appears explicitly in two of its saints’ lives, distinguished from “Spayne” (Hispania) and recognized as a separate realm. 1. Galicia as the Origin of the Tarasque Dragon (in the “Lyf of Saynt Martha”) In the life of Saint Martha (sister of Lazarus), Voragine recounts the legend of the Tarasque dragon on the Rhône (between Arles and Avignon). The monster arrives “by sea from Galicia” and is the offspring of Leviathan (a fierce water serpent) and the “Bonacho” (a beast engendered in Galicia). Original text from Caxton (1483) : “…he cam thyder by see fro GALYCE and was engendryd of leuiathan / whyche is a serpent of the water and is moche woode / and of a beest callyd bonacho / that is engendryd in GALYCE.” Galician translation : “…chegou alí por mar desde Galicia e fora enxendrado por Leviatán, unha serpe acuática moi feroz, e por unha besta chamada Bonacho que se engendra en Galicia .” Saint Martha tames the dragon, but the key point is that Galicia is portrayed as a mythical, dangerous land – the source of legendary monsters – showing its otherness and power in the medieval European imagination. 2. The Legend of Queen Lupa (in the “Lyf of Seint Iames the More”) In the life of Saint James the Greater, Voragine includes the full legend of Queen Lupa. The disciples arrive in Galicia , in the realm of Lupa (explicitly distinguished from “Spayne” or “Hispania”), and the queen tries to deceive them with wild bulls to prevent them from transporting the apostle’s body. The miracle converts them, and Lupa eventually converts. Original text from Caxton (1483) : “…and by the conduyte of thangelle of our lord they arryued in GALYCE arrow_forward in the ROYAME of LUPA / Ther was in Spaygne a quene whiche had to name and also by deseruyng of her lyf Lupa whiche is as moche to saye in englyssh as a she wulf / … And whan LUPA the QUENE herd this / she sent them vnto a right cruel man by trycherye and by gyle as mayster beleth sayth / and some saye it was to the KYNG OF SPAYGNE / …” Galician translation (summarized) : “…e guiados polo anxo do Señor, arribaron a Galicia , ao reino de Lupa . Naquel tempo había en Hispania unha raíña chamada Lupa, que merecía ese nome polo seu xeito de vivir (en inglés, ‘she-wolf’ ou loba). … Cando a raíña Lupa escoitou isto, enviounos con engano e traizón a un home cruel (algúns din que ao rei de Hispania ). …” The legend is repeated (more briefly) in the South English Legendary (ca. 1290): “Into þe lond of Galeis : þare ase þe quene lay, Þat luþur [was] and schrewe inovȝ. : seint Iemes Men a-non Op of þe schipe nomen þat holie bodi : and leiden it opon a ston. Þe ston bi-gan to wexe a-brod : and holuȝ bi-cam a-midde…” Galician translation : “Na terra de Galicia: alí onde a raíña descansaba, que era vil e malvada, os homes de Santiago tomaron de inmediato o corpo santo e o colocaron sobre unha pedra. A pedra comezou a alargarse, e converteuse en cova no centro…” Historical and literary value : These references show that Galicia was known across Europe as an independent Christian kingdom (distinguished from “Spayne/Hispania”), a sacred pilgrimage destination, and a mythical land. The Lupa legend, popularized by the Legenda Aurea and Caxton’s edition, spread this image for centuries. Al-Maqqari and the Capitulation of Lugo (autumn 714). The text from al-Maqqari (in Nafh al-tib min ghusn al-Andalus al-ratib ), as transcribed and commented in the Boletín do Museo Provincial de Lugo (citing the edition by Emilio Lafuente Alcántara, Ajbar Machmua, pp. 192–193), provides the only explicit mention among Christian and Muslim sources of events involving Lugo during the Muslim invasion of the early 8th century. Here is a direct English translation of the key passage you provided (modernized spelling and punctuation for clarity, based on the given Galician/Spanish transcription): "He [Musa ibn Nusayr] held Muga ben Nosair in such high regard that he had vehement desires to penetrate into the region of Galicia, the seat of the infidels, and was making preparations for it, when Muguaits Ar-Romi, sent by al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (whose client he was), came to order Musa to leave Spain, abandon his expeditions, and present himself before the Caliph. This order displeased him exceedingly, as it destroyed all his plans precisely when no corner of Spain remained unconquered by the Arabs except the region of Galicia, and he had vivid desires to penetrate it. He tried to win over Muguaits with affectionate words, begging him to delay fulfilling the Caliph's order so that he could accompany him and share in the gains and spoils. Muguaits agreed, and together they advanced to the rugged passes of the North; they conquered the fortresses of Viseu and Lugo, and there they halted, sending out explorers who reached as far as the Pelayo mountain range, by the Ocean Sea. No church remained unburned, no bell unrung; the Christians submitted to peace and the payment of personal tribute, and the Arabs established themselves in the most difficult passes. The Arabs and Berbers, when passing through a place that seemed suitable, founded a settlement there and established themselves in it. Thus Islam extended its zone across Spain and diminished that of the polytheists. When Musa found himself at the height of his victory and full of hopes, al-Walid, the Caliph, sent a second envoy named Naqr (or Abu Naqr) to force Musa to leave Spain. He did so, forcing him to depart from Lugo, the city of Galicia, retreating through the pass called the defile of Galicia. Tariq, returning from Aragon, joined him on the way, and they marched together... [the text continues with their return to the East]." This passage describes a temporary military advance and occupation: conquest of Lugo (and Viseu), submission of local Christians via tribute (rather than full destruction or expulsion), establishment of positions in difficult terrain, and burning of churches (though the scope is framed around the northern advance). It portrays Galicia as the last unconquered area, with Lugo as a key point, but the advance is cut short by caliphal orders. Fig. Perspective of Castilian/Spanish historiography, which systematically omits or downplays the events subsequent to the capitulation of Lugo (autumn 714), unlike the narrative maintained in Syrian and Arabic sources. Spanish historiography often omits or downplays this Lugo episode in maps and narratives of the conquest routes (focusing on Tariq's southern/eastern paths and Musa's reinforcements toward Toledo, Zaragoza, etc., with later Berber garrisons in the north being temporary or reversed). In contrast, some Syrian/Arabic traditions (via al-Maqqari's sources) preserve it, treating "Galicia" as a broader northern zone including western Asturias, while Spanish accounts tend to separate "Galicia" strictly and emphasize Asturias as the refuge/resistance core (e.g., Covadonga 722). Regarding the Tumbo A of Santiago de Compostela (document nº 28): The quoted Latin phrase "Et quoniam Hiriensis sedes ultima prae omnibus sedibus erat et propter spacia terrarum uix ab impiis inquietata […]" translates to English as: "And since the see of Iria was the last of all the sees, and because of the great distance [from the invaders] it was scarcely disturbed by the impious […]" This medieval Compostelan text claims the diocese of Iria (Iria Flavia / later linked to Compostela) suffered minimal disruption due to its remote northwestern location, supporting arguments of institutional continuity. The list of bishops of Iria/Compostela (from sources like the one you shared) shows an unbroken sequence from the 6th century onward (e.g., Andrés fl. 561–572, through figures like Teodomiro c. 818–847 who "discovered" Santiago's tomb c. 830, Ataúlfo I/II in the 9th century amid Viking threats, and into the 10th century with Sinando I c. 877–920). This is presented as evidence that Iria was the only Hispanic diocese maintaining continuous activity through the Muslim conquest and early medieval period, unlike many southern or central sees that were interrupted or relocated. No direct written or archaeological evidence appears in standard sources for Arab destruction or prolonged occupation in key sites like Brigantia (A Coruña/Betanzos area, major Roman port), Iria itself, Noia/Novia , Elenos/Celenos (Caldas de Reis), or inland comarcas (Deza, Castella/Torres de Ribadavia-Nóvoa, Asma, Lemos). Al-Maqqari's text specifies church burnings in the northern/Asturian context during the advance, but does not describe Galicia-wide destruction of settlements or infrastructure—unlike broader claims for other regions. Al-Maqqari's unique account (late 17th-century compilation from earlier Arabic sources) records Musa ibn Nusayr's brief but notable 713–714 advance into Galicia, capturing Lugo and Viseu, forcing Christian submission through tribute, burning churches in explored zones (up to the Asturian coast), and establishing outposts—portraying Galicia as the final unconquered refuge. Caliphal recall halted deeper penetration. This episode is largely absent from mainstream Spanish conquest maps/narratives (which prioritize southern/central routes and treat northern resistance as Asturian), but preserved in certain Arabic traditions that conflate western Asturias with Galicia. The Tumbo A text and bishop lists reinforce Iria's claimed exceptional continuity: as the remotest see, it was "scarcely disturbed" and maintained an unbroken episcopal line from Visigothic times through the invasion era—the only such case among Hispanic dioceses. Sites like Brigantia, Iria, Noia, Caldas de Reis, and areas like Deza, Lemos, or Castella-Bubal show no documented Arab destruction or occupation in surviving records/archaeology, contrasting with al-Maqqari's emphasis on Asturian/northern disruption (church burnings) rather than Galician settlement annihilation. This supports interpretations of Galicia's far northwest as a zone of limited direct impact, preserving ecclesiastical and local structures amid the broader conquest. Fig. It can be confirmed that, until the definitive relocation of the episcopal see from Iria to Compostela — prompted by the Viking raids — the diocese remained continuously active, even during the period of the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. It was the only diocese in Hispania that maintained uninterrupted activity. An additional striking element in Galician toponymy is the presence of a dozen place names such as Toldaos (or variants like Toldanos, Toldaños), documented in several parishes and locations within the provinces of Lugo, particularly concentrated in the dioceses of Lugo (e.g., San Salvador de Toldaos in Triacastela, Lugo; Toldaos in Pantón, Láncara, and O Incio). Fig. Distribution of the 11 Toletanos > Toldaos place names (others: 3 Toledanos - 1 León, 1 Asturias and 1 Zamora - ) e 2 Toletanum > Toldao place names in Galicia. These toponyms derive etymologically from Toletanos / Toldanos < Toletanos , meaning "the people from Toledo" or "the Toledans." The most widely accepted historical interpretation among scholars (as noted in works on Galician toponymy, medieval studies, and analyses such as those by James D'Emilio in Culture and Society in Medieval Galicia , or in official toponymy resources from the Xunta de Galicia and studies by Ramón Menéndez Pidal, José Piel, and others) is that they reflect the settlement, during the 8th–10th centuries, of groups of Christian refugees from Toledo (and possibly other central-southern peninsular areas) following the Muslim invasion of 711 and the fall of the Visigothic kingdom. These refugees—likely Visigothic elites, Mozarabic clergy, or fleeing Christian populations—found refuge in the remote northwest, where Arab penetration was minimal or short-lived (as evidenced in al-Maqqari's text, which limits actions to punctual advances without stable occupation). The complete or near-total absence of similar toponyms in Asturias (where no equivalents like "Toledanos" or derivatives are recorded) contrasts sharply with their concentration in Galicia, suggesting that the preferred destination for these Toledan groups was Galicia—especially the areas of the Lugo and Iria dioceses—considered safer due to its distance, rugged terrain, and ecclesiastical continuity (as seen in the Tumbo A reference to the Iria see being "scarcely disturbed by the impious"). This reinforces the notion of Galicia as the primary refuge for certain sectors of the Visigothic-Toledan population, while Asturias appears more as a nucleus of autochthonous resistance (with toponymy that does not reflect equivalent Toledan influxes). The exclusive distribution of these toponyms (confined to the Galician interior, without significant parallels in Asturias) supports the view of the far northwestern peninsula as a zone of greater institutional and Christian demographic continuity from the Visigothic period, without such drastic interruptions as in other territories. In summary: The Galician Toldaos serve as concrete toponymic evidence of refugee migration from Toledo to the northwest, concentrated in the dioceses of Lugo, and absent in Asturias—highlighting Galicia as the "safe place" for these groups, in contrast to the traditional Asturian narrative of central refuge. The Kings of Galicia in the Texts (8th–11th Centuries). Galicia as the Core Regnum, Oviedo and León as a Temporary Seats. • Pelagius Galliciae Rex (718-737). This monarch probably did not exist. In any case, judging by the anthroponym , it seems we are dealing with a religious man, perhaps a Briton monk from the Diocese of Britonia in Lugo. • « Isa ben Ahmad Al-Razi says that in the time of Anbasa ben Suhaim Al-Qalbi, a wild donkey called Paio arose in the land of GALICIA. » (Arab Chronicles: Al-Maqqari ). • « CHAP. XVIII. [...]. Origine des ROYS DE GALICE & de Nauarre. » ( M. Claude Fauchet : "Les œuvres de feu M. Claude Fauchet, president en la cour des monnoyes", Ed. Iean de Heuqueuville, París, 1610). • « [...] fueron grandes tiempos posseidas por muchos Reyes Godos, en cuyo derecho sucedió PELAYO PRIMER REY DE GALICIA, de quien sucedieron los Reyes, que después reinaron en León y Castilla. » "« ... they were held for a long time by many Gothic Kings, by whose right succeeded PELAYO, FIRST KING OF GALICIA, from whom descended the Kings who later reigned in León and Castile. »" ( Jerónimo Zurita : "Historia del Rey don Hernando el Católico: de las empresas y ligas de Italia" , Libro Pimero, Ed. Herederos de Pedro Lanaja y Lamarca, Zaragoza, 1670). • Fávila (737-739). Suposto fillo de Paio citado polas crónicas Albendense, Rotense e Ovetense. Non existen fontes externas que confirmen a súa existencia. • Alfonsus I, Galliciae Rex (739-757). • « Mortuus est quoque hoc anno ALFONSUS SEU ADELPHONSUS GALLICIAE REX, cognomento Catholicus, vir piisimus; cuius in obitu auditæ divinae laudes, in eum iactas criminationes de severitate, de nece fraterna, melius quam codices omnes refutarunt. » « In this same year died ALPHONSUS (or ADELPHONSUS), KING OF GALICIA , surnamed the Catholic, a most pious man; at whose passing, divine praises were heard, which refuted the accusations cast against him regarding his severity and the murder of his brother far better than all the codices. » ( Philippi Brietii : "Annales mundi sive Chronicon universale. Partis Secundae" , Vol. V, apud Conrad Monath, Vienna, 1727). • « En cette même année 140 (24 mai 757) mourut, après un règne de dix-huit ans, ALFONSE (Adhfunsh), ROI DE GALICE (malik Jillīquiyya ; il eut pour successeur son fils Froila (Firowilia)[---]. » « In this same year 140 (May 24, 757) died, after a reign of eighteen years, ALPHONSE (Adhfunsh), KING OF GALICIA ( malik Jillīquiyya ); he was succeeded by his son Froila (Firowilia)[---]. » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn al-Athir ). • « Adhfunsh, malik Jillīquiyya » « Adhfunsh, king of GALICIA » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan ). • Froila I, Galliciae Rex (757-768). • « Superavit etiam fedifragum Gallecie populum adversus regnum suum inania meditantem » « He also overcame the faithless PEOPLE OF GALICIA who were devising vain plots against his kingdom. » ( Historia Silense ). • « FROILA GALLÆCIÆ REX victoriosus » « FROILA, VICTORIOUS KING OF GALICIA » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" , Imprensis Georgii Schütter et Martini Happach, Augsburg, 1727). • « Frowila, malik Yillikīyya » « FROILA, KING OF GALICIA » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Al-Athir , Ibn Khaldun , Ibn Al-Khatib , Al-Qalqashandi , El-Hajji ). • Aurelius, Galliciae Rex (768-774). • « mourut Ourâlî (Aurelio), roi de Galice...qui eut pour successeur Chiyaloûn (Silo) » « ... died AURELIO, KING OF GALICIA ... who was succeeded by Silo (Chiyaloûn). » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn al-Athir ). • « Hic est annus [...] qua Tudensis habet, defunctum esse Aurelium Regem Gallæciæ in Hispania, suffectumque in ejus locum Silum » « This is the year [...] in which the [Chronicle of] Tui states that AURELIO, KING OF GALICIA in Hispania, has died, and in his place succeeded Silo... » ( Caesar Baronio : "Annales Ecclesiastici Baronii. Cum Critice Pagii" , Vol. XIII, typis Leonardi Veturini, Lucca, 1743). • « Aurelium tulerat Gallæcia patria Regem, hoc vita functo gens addictissima Regni Silonem dictum sibi praefecere nepotem » « GALICIA , his fatherland, had brought forth AURELIO AS KING ; he having departed this life, the most loyal people of the Kingdom appointed his nephew, called Silo, to lead them. » ( Petro Cioffio : "Ecclesiasticarum descriptionum alij viginti libri. Liber XXIX" , apud haeredem Bartholomaei Zannetti, 1625). • « Diem quoque obit Aurelius Gallæciæ Rex, suffectus in eius locum Silus sive Silo ipsius sororis filius » « Also died AURELIO, KING OF GALICIA , succeeded in his place by Silus or Silo, the son of his own sister. » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" , Augsburg, 1727). • « [...] qui etiam ad hunc annum ponit obitum Aurelii Regis Gallæciæ in Hispania, successionemque Sili sive Silonis Sororis suæ filium » « [...] who also places in this year the death of AURELIO, KING OF GALICIA in Hispania, and the succession of Silus or Silo, son of his sister. » ( Augustinus Sartorius : "Compendium Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Eminentissimi Cardinalis Baronii" , Vol. III, Prague, 1736). • Silo, Galliciae Rex (774-783). • « mourut Chîloûn (Silo), roi de Galice, que l’on remplaça par Alphonse » « ... died SILO, KING OF GALICIA , who was replaced by Alphonse. » ( Ibn al-Athir : "Annales du Maghreb & de l'Espagne" , trans. E. Fagnan, Algiers, 1898). • « Silus sive Silo in Regnum Gallæciæ Aurelio succedit [...] Moritur, 783 » « Silus or Silo succeeds Aurelio in the KINGDOM OF GALICIA [...] He died in 783. » ( Caesar Baronio : "Annales Ecclesiastici Baronii. Cum Critice Pagii" , Vol. XIII, Lucca, 1743). • « Hoc item anno, Silo rex Gallæciæ in Hispania [...] migrat e vita & regnat solus Alphonsus [...] quem viuens in collegam assumpserat » « In this same year, SILO, KING OF GALICIA in Hispania, departed this life [...] and Alfonso reigns alone, whom [Silo] had taken as a colleague while living. » ( Jonge Boudewijn : "Chronicon Morale. Pars Tertia" , Cologne, 1522). • « Silo vero mortuus est [...] cuius rei testem habeo priuilegium Alfonsi Casti eius successoris concessum Monasterio S. Vicentii de Monteforti in regno Gallæciæ » « Silo died [...] of which I have as witness the privilege granted by his successor, Alfonso the Chaste, to the Monastery of San Vicente de Monforte in the KINGDOM OF GALICIA . » ( Flavius Lucius Dextri Barcinonensis : "Chronicon Omnimodae Historiae" , Lyon, 1627). • « Ouetum ciuitas Galleciæ, olim regia, fundata regnante Sylone Rege Galleciæ in monte Oueto [...] Principes Galleciæ sedem transtulerunt Legione » « Oviedo, a city of GALICIA , formerly a royal one, founded during the reign of SILO, KING OF GALICIA , on Mount Oviedo [...] The Princes of Galicia transferred their seat to León. » ( Innocent de Ciron [Honorius III]: "Paratitla in quinque libros decretalium Gregorii IX" , Toulouse, 1645). • « Ovetum urbs Gallæciæ, olim Regia, fundata regnante Sylone, Rege Gallæciæ [...] Principes Galleciæ sedem transtulerunt Legionem » « Oviedo, a city of GALICIA , formerly a Royal seat, founded during the reign of SILO, KING OF GALICIA [...] The Princes of Galicia transferred their seat to León. » ( Johannes Strauchius : "Amoenitatum Juris Canonici Semestre" , Vol. I, Jena, 1674). • « Silo Gallæciæ Rex in Hispania desiit eodem anno [...] Eius monumentum extat Oueti [...] [SILO PRINCEPS FECIT] » « SILO, KING OF GALICIA in Hispania, died in the same year [...] His monument remains in Oviedo [...] [SILO PRINCEPS FECIT]. » ( Iacobo Goutoulas Tolosano : "Universa historia profana. Pars Secunda" , Paris, 1659). • « Silo Rex Gallæciæ ex hac vita migrat, solusque iam regnat Alfonsus [...] Silo Gallæciæ Rex moritur » « SILO, KING OF GALICIA , departs from this life, and Alfonso now reigns alone [...] SILO, KING OF GALICIA , dies. » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" , Augsburg, 1727). Fig. SILUS REX ET RAMIRUS REX: THE DEZA DIPLOMA (ERA 726 / AD 788) This extraordinary document from the monastery of San Martiño (originally from Carboeiro) provides direct evidence of the presence and authority of King Silo and a previously overlooked King Ramiro in the Deza region. The survival of the place names Donsión ( Dominum Silonem ) and Donramiro ( Dominum Ranemirum ) in this very area suggests that this lineage had its hereditary estates and geographic origin in the heart of Galicia. • « [...] facta cartula uenditjonis Vº kalendas marcias In era DCC C XXVI: [e]go uiza In hanc carta <--> qui presentes fuerunt [...] confirma ramirus rex confirma silus rex confirma eirigus noduit. » « [...] this charter of sale was made on the 5th kalends of March in the ERA 726 [AD 788] : I, Uiza, [present] in this charter <--> those who were present [...] KING RAMIRO CONFIRMS, KING SILO CONFIRMS , Eirigus Noduit confirms. » (AHUS, S. Martinho, Perigaminhos, nº 1. Originally from the Monastery of Carboeiro). Fig. VEREMUDUS PROLIX SILONIA: THE CARBOEIRO TESTAMENT (ERA 866 / AD 828) This document provides a definitive genealogical link between King Silo and his descendant, Bermudo. It confirms the hereditary transmission of estates ( villa Parati Felici ) from Silo to his son/descendant, situated in the Deza region , within the Province of Galicia . • « ... baselica fundata esse dignoxitur In loco que uocitant Karuonarjo. Iusta ribulo deza prouincie gallecie [...] Nos exiguis famulis que uestris ueremudus prolix silonia <..> facimus ad Ipsum locum kartula testamenti <..> de uilla que uocitant parati felici que de pater nostro silone et mater <..> facta scriptura donationis <..> Era DCCCCLXVI [DCCCLXVI]. » « ... the basilica known to be founded in the place called Carboeiro , next to the river Deza in the province of Galicia [...] We, your humble servants, Bermudo, descendant of Silo , make to that place a charter of testament regarding the estate called Parata Felici , which we hold from our father Silo and [our] mother [...] the deed of donation was made in the ERA 866 [AD 828] . » (AHDS, S. Martinho, pasta 79, nº 3. Document regarding the donation of Bermudo and his wife to the Monastery of Carboeiro). Fig. NUNUS DIACONUS PROLIX SILONI: THE TESTAMENT OF THE ROYAL LINEAGE IN DEZA In this testament, Nuno the Deacon confirms his royal descent and disposes of the family estates in the Deza valley. He explicitly names King Silo as his grandfather and another Lord Silo as his father, firmly rooting this dynasty in Galician territory. • « ... Ego nunus diaconus quondam prolix siloni [...] facerem textum scripture testamenti [...] de hereditates meas proprias quas habeo In uall[e] de dez[a] [...] uocitata felgaria cognomento silonj quod fuit de pater meus domnus silo [...] quam ibi gadanauit auus meus rex don silus [...] facta scriptura testamenti uel donationis ... » « ... I, Nuno the Deacon, son of the late Silo , [...] make this text of testamentary charter [...] regarding my own inherited lands which I hold in the Valley of Deza , [...] called Felgueira, known by the surname "of Silo", which belonged to my father, Lord Silo , [...] which my grandfather, King Lord Silo , acquired there [...] the testamentary or donation charter was made ... » (C. AHN, S. Martinho Pinario, pasta 518, nº 1. Donation to the Monastery of Ante-Altares). • Mauregatus, Galliciae Rex (783-789). • « mourut Mauregat, roi de Galice...qui eut pour successeur Bermond (Bermudo I) » « ... died MAUREGAT, KING OF GALICIA ... who was succeeded by Bermudo (Bermond). » ( Ibn al-Athir : "Annales du Maghreb & de l'Espagne" , trans. E. Fagnan, Algiers, 1898). • « Eodem anno [...] defuncto Maurogato Rege Gallæciæ, in locum ejus successit Veremundus diaconus [...] » « In the same year [...] upon the death of MAUREGATO, KING OF GALICIA , there succeeded in his place Bermudo the Deacon [...] » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici ab Ludovico Aurelio Perusino" , Cologne, 1685). • « Maurogato Gallæciæ usurpatori successit filius Veremendus Diaconus [...] » « To MAUREGATO, USURPER OF GALICIA , succeeded his son [sic] Bermudo the Deacon [...] » ( Philippus Brietius : "Annales mundi sive chronicon universale" , Augsburg, 1696). • « Apud Hispanos moritur hoc item anno Maurogatus Gallæciæ Rex, successorem fortitus Veremundum Diaconum [...] » « Among the Spaniards, there also died this year MAUREGATO, KING OF GALICIA , having obtained as successor Bermudo the Deacon [...] » ( Augustinus Sartorius : "Compendium Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Eminentissimi Cardinalis Baronii" , Vol. III, Prague, 1736). • « Moritur Maurogatus Regni Gallæciæ usurpator, in cuius locum succedit Veremundus [...] » « MAUREGATO, USURPER OF THE KINGDOM OF GALICIA , died, and in his place succeeded Bermudo [...] » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" , Augsburg, 1727). • Veremundus, Galliciae Rex (788-791). • « Veremundus diaconus Maurogato in Gallæciæ Regno succedit, 790. Alfonsum a Maurogato Regno pulsum restituit » « Veremundus the deacon succeeds Mauregatus in the Kingdom of Galicia in 790. He restored Alfonso, who had been driven from the kingdom by Mauregatus » ( Caesar Baronio : Annales Ecclesiastici Baronii. Cum Critice Pagii , Tomo XIII, Lucae, typis Leonardi Veturini, 1743). • « Galleciam deuastauitet in reditu obuium habuit Veremundum » « He devastated Gallaecia and on his return he met Veremundus » ( Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada : Historia Arabum , Ex Typographia Erpeniana Linguarum Orientalium, Prostant apud Iohannem Maire & Elzevirios, 1625). • « Mauregato functo Gallæcia Verremundum eligit: eiectum hic Regno revocavit in oram Alphonsum patriam, ut secum regnasse liceret. Decertaturus se per ieiunia firmat Rex Carolus, pariterq. Virum per vota piorum congreditur bellis, victoria certa paratur inde sibi, potuit nec sanguinolenta videri. Dicitur Alphonsus Caroli duxisse sororem Bertam in coniugium, fuerat cognomine Castus, hic priman Regni sedem stabiliuit Oveti, vir clarus pietate animi, ac virtute parata » « After the death of Mauregatus, Gallaecia elected Veremundus. He recalled Alfonso, who had been expelled from the kingdom, to the fatherland, so that he might reign with him. King Charles strengthened himself with fasting in preparation for battle, and together with the man [Alfonso] he advanced through the vows of the pious; from there a certain victory was prepared for him, and it could not be seen as bloody. It is said that Alfonso took to wife Berta, the sister of Charles the Great. He was surnamed ‘the Chaste’. He established the first seat of the kingdom at Oviedo, a man renowned for the piety of his soul and for his prepared virtue » ( Petro Cioffio : Ecclesiasticarum descriptionum alij viginti libri. Liber XXX , apud haeredem Bartholomaei Zannetti, 1625). • « Assumptus hoc æque anno a Veremundo Gallæciæ Rege Alfonsus cognomento Castus in regni collegam, deinceps eximia pietate miraculis illustrata clavum tenuit: de quo non moda illud habetur fingulare, quod cum coniuge sua, Caroli Magni sorore, perpetuarn castimoniam excoluerit; verum etiam quod Angeli sub peregrinorum specie ei facti obviam, qui aurifabros se visi profiteri, pretiosissimam ex aure Crucem, brevi temporis intervallo, uti ad oculum existimabatur fabricatam, posthac abeuntes illi reliquerunt, quam ipse deinde in Ovitensi Ecclesia collocavit » « In this same year, Alfonso, surnamed ‘the Chaste’, was raised by Veremundus, king of Gallaecia, as colleague in the kingdom. Thereafter he held the helm with outstanding piety, illustrated by miracles. Of him it is recorded not only the singular fact that he cultivated perpetual chastity with his wife, the sister of Charlemagne, but also that angels in the guise of pilgrims met him. Appearing as goldsmiths, they fabricated in a very short time a most precious cross of gold — as could be judged by the eye — and then, departing, left it to him. He later placed it in the church of Oviedo » ( Augustinus Sartorius : Compendium Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Eminentissimi Cardinalis Baronii , T. III, Ed. Pauli Lochneri, Praga, 1736). • « o rei de Yillîqiyyâ abdicou e fíxose monxe » « The king of Yillîqiyyâ [Galicia] abdicated and became a monk » (Crónicas árabes: Dikr bilad al-Andalus ). • Alfonsus, Galliciae Rex (791-842). • « Hadefuns, rex Gallæciæ » « Hadefonsus, king of Galicia » ( Hermanni Contracti Monachi Reichenaugensis Chronicon . Patrologia Latina, vol. 143, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1853). • « Sequitur annus Redemptoris septingentesimus nonagesimus tertius, indictionis primae, idemque tertius incipit Alfonsi sive Adefonsi cognomento Casti regnantis iterum in Gallæcia, aera nimirum octingentesima trigesima prima » « The year of the Redeemer 793 follows, of the first indiction, and the third year of the reign of Alfonso, also called Adefonsus, surnamed the Chaste, begins again in Galicia, in the era eight hundred and thirty-one » ( Caesar Baronio : Annales Ecclesiastici Baronii. Cum Critice Pagii , Tomo XIII, typis Leonardi Veturini, Lucae, 1743). • « Alphonsus rex Gallæciæ: Hoc item anno, Silo rex Gallæciæ in Hispania, octauo anno regni migrat e vita & regnat solus Alphonsus, siue Adelphonsus, cognomento castus, quem viuens in collegam assumpserat » « Alfonso, king of Galicia: In this same year, Silo, king of Gallaecia in Spain, in the eighth year of his reign, departs from life, and Alfonso, also called Adelphonsus, surnamed the Chaste, whom he had taken as colleague while still alive, reigns alone.» ( Jonge Boudewijn : V.P.F. Balduini Iunii, Ordinis Seraphici S. Francisci Regularis Observantiae, Chronicon Morale. Ab anno Domini 600 usque ad annum 900. Pars Tertia , apud Bernhardi Gualtheri, Colonia, 1522). • « Alphonsum statuit Gallæcia patria Regem, Selonis collega fuit, dum viueret idem, Manregatum hic parvum sibi senserat adversantem, qui Mauris fedisse potest per foedera iunctis, foeda tame, nam pactus erat misisse quotannis, de populo centum noti candoris alumnas: Manregatum Regno vires repulere nepotis. Iam Silone suo viduata Adosinda marito perfectam vitae formam amplexata, remisit Nuncia terrenis rerum per tempora curis » « Galicia, his homeland, established Alfonso as king. He was colleague of Silo while the latter lived. He had perceived the small Mauregatus as an adversary to himself; Mauregatus could have made a pact with the Moors through joined treaties, though foul, for he had agreed to send every year one hundred maidens of notable beauty from the people. The forces of the nephew drove Mauregatus from the kingdom. Now Adosinda, widowed of her husband Silo, embracing the perfect form of life, sent away the cares of earthly things through the times » ( Petro Cioffio : Ecclesiasticarum descriptionum alij viginti libri. Liber XXX , apud haeredem Bartholomaei Zannetti, 1625). • « En même temps (ano 794) Abd el Melek [...] entrait par une route différente sur les terres chrétiens. A Astorga il recontra le roi de Galice et celui de Biscaye [...] » « At the same time (in the year 794) Abd el Melek [...] entered by a different route into Christian lands. At Astorga he met the king of Galicia and the one of Biscay [...] » ( Charles Romey : Histoire générale d'Espagne , Tomo I, Ed. Félix Malteste et Cie., Paris, 1838). • « plurima bella exercuit cum rege Galleciæ Aldefonso & cum quadam vice Galleciam introisset » « He waged many wars with Alfonso, king of Galicia, and on one occasion he entered Galicia » ( Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada : Historia Arabum. Caput XX. De Prognostico mortis eius , ex Typographia Erpeniana Linguarum Orientalium, Prostant apud Iohannem Maire & Elzevirios, 1625). • « H. 179. (27. Mart. 795.) Abdelmalechus iterum in Gallaeciam irrumpens usque ad Astures excurrit. Ei rex Gallæciæ obviam ſactus, petito obtentoque a finitimis regibus subsidiario milite, post aliquot commissa proelia tandem in valle quadam ante exitum Giumadae posterioris die, feria 6. manum cum Abdelmaleco conseruit. Sed victus fususque est Gallæcorum exercitus multique eorum duces et sacerdotes caesi sunt. Abdelmalecus autem victor rediit » « H. 179 (27 March 795). Abdelmalech again burst into Galicia and advanced as far as the Astures. The king of Galicia met him, and having sought and obtained auxiliary troops from neighbouring kings, after several battles joined, finally in a certain valley before the exit of the later Jumada, on Friday, engaged in battle with Abdelmalech. But the army of the Galicians was defeated and scattered, and many of their leaders and priests were slain. Abdelmalech, however, returned victorious » ( Friedrich Funck : Ludwig der Fromme: Geschichte der Auflösung des großen Frankenreich , apud Siegmund & Schmerber, Frankfurt, 1832, p. 284). • « Ipso denique anno rex Gallitianus Adefonsus Sarracenos populatus est magna infestatione, et quadam Hispaniae civitate per obsidionem pene sese tradente ei, dum ipse, armis depositis, furentes extrinsecus christianos a certamine sedaret hostium, ab adversariis, quibus parcere deliberavit, ictu sagittae foris muros vulneratus interiit, et sic exercitus eius dolore non sine magno regreditur, lugens principem suum » « In that same year, Adefonsus, the Galician king, ravaged the Saracens with great fury, and while a certain city in Spain was almost surrendering to him by siege, as he himself, having laid down his arms, was calming the raging Christians outside from battle with the enemy, he was wounded by an arrow from the adversaries, whom he had decided to spare, outside the walls, and thus his army returns with no small grief, mourning their prince » ( Ademari Historiarum. Liber III , MGH, vol. IV, Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1841). • « Alphonsus Rex Gallæciæ, Arianam hæresim in Hispania repullulantem extirpat: cui ob id & eius posteris a Gregorio tertio Regis Catholici nomen donatum est » «Alfonso, king of Galicia, extirpates the Arian heresy springing up again in Spain: for which reason the name of Catholic King was given to him and his descendants by Gregory III » ( Claudii Arnolphi Parisiensis : Theologi pro Henrico Rege Nauarrae Oratio Ad Gregorium XIII. P.M. , Rigaudus, Lugduni, 1573). • « Alphonsus Rex Gallæciæ repullulantem in Hispania hæresim radicitus extirpat » « Alfonso, king of Gallaecia, extirpates the heresy springing up again in Spain by the roots » ( Anonymus : Prognosis conjecturalis astrologica [vel Calendarium Tyrnaviense] , Typis Academicis, Tyrnavia, 1687). • « Adefonsi Galletiarum principis missos, quos pro amicitia firmanda miserat, cum donis suscepit et pacifice remisit » « He received with gifts and peacefully sent back the envoys of Adefonsus, prince of the Galicians, whom he had sent to strengthen friendship » ( Astronomus: "Vita Hludowici Imperatoris. A. 798-804" , MGH, vol. II, Ed. Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1829). ( Robertus Dorr : "De bellis Francorum cum Arabibus gestis usque ad obitum Karoli M." , Ed. Regimonti Pr., Dalkow, 1861). • « Hadefonsus rex Gallæciæ et Asturiæ » vel « Hadefonsus rex Galleciæ et Asturiæ » « Hadefonsus, king of Galicia and Astorga » ( Einhardus : "Annales Fuldenses sive Annales regni Francorum orientalis. Annales Fuldenses pars prima" , MGH, Friedrich Kurze, Hannover, 1891). ( Anonymus : "Annales Laurissenses maiores et Einhardi, 1. Annales regni francorum inde ab a. 741. usque ad a. 829. qui dicuntur. DCCXCVIII.12" , MGH, Friedrich Kurze, Hannover, 1895). ( Auctor incertus : "Annales Laurissenses et Eginhardi Parisiis" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1851). ( Regino Prumiensis : "Chronicon. Liber de gestis regum francorum" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1853). ( Ekkehardus Uraugiensis : "Chronicon universale. Descriptio actuum Karoli Magni" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1853). ( Helinandus Frigidi Montis : "Chronicon. Liber quadragesimus quintus. 798" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1855). • « Hadefonsus etiam rex Galliciæ et Asturicæ » vel « Aldefonsum Galliciæ atque Asturicæ regem » vel « Hadefonsum, Gallitiæ atque Asturicæ regem » « Hadefonsus, king of Galicia and Astorga » ( Anonymus : "Annales Mettenses. Annales Mettenses priores" , MGH, Bernhard von Simson, Hannover, 1905). ( Eginhardus : "Vita Caroli Magni. Vita Caroli Imperatoris" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1851). ( Ekkehardus Uraugiensis : "Chronicon universale. Descriptio actuum Karoli Magni" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1853). ( Auctores Incerti : "Chronicon S. Benigni Divionensis. Praefatio" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1854). ( Hugo de S. Maria Floriacensis : "Actus regum Francorum. Liber" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1854). ( Hugo de S. Maria Floriacensis : "Excerpta ex Historia ecclesiastica. Liber Sextus" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1854). • « Alphonse II, roi de Galice, surnommé le Chaste, titre qui lui était justement dû, implora l'assistance de Charles, qui, ayant fait passer ses troupes en Espagne, sortit victorieux d'une bataille qu’il donna au roi des Maures, qui venait tout nouvellement de faire une invasion dans le royaume d’Alphonse » « Alphonse II, king of Galicia, surnamed the Chaste, a title which was justly due to him, implored the assistance of Charles, who, having sent his troops into Spain, emerged victorious from a battle he gave to the king of the Moors, who had very recently made an invasion into the kingdom of Alphonse » ( Pierre Dantal : Nouveau cours de thèmes pour les quatrièmes et troisièmes , impr. de J.-M. Boursy, Lyon, 1811, p. 44). • « Adefonsi Galleciarum principis missos, quos pro amicitia firmanda miserat cum donis, suscepit et pacifice remisit » « He received the envoys of Alfonso, Prince of the Galicias, whom he had sent with gifts to strengthen friendship, and sent them back peacefully » ( "Vita Hludowici Imperatoris. A. 798-804" . MGH, vol. II, Ed. Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1829). • « Necessitudo inter Carolum Magnum & Alfonsum Regem Gallæciæ » « The close relationship between Charlemagne and Alfonso, king of Gallicia » ( Caesar Baronio : Annales Ecclesiastici Baronii. Cum Critice Pagii , Tomo XIII, typis Leonardi Veturini, Lucae, 1743). • « CAPVT XVI. Caroli M. apud reges Galliciæ, Scotorum, maxime Persarum, nec non Imperatorum Graecorum aestimatio et dignitas » « Chapter XVI. The esteem and dignity of Charles the Great among the kings of Galicia, the Scots, especially the Persians, and also the Greek Emperors » ( Eginhardus : "Vita Caroli Magni. Vita Caroli Imperatoris" , Patrologia Latina, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1851). • « Cependant vindrent Ambassades de diuerses & estranges natiõs, pour auoir la bienvueillance & amytié du Roy Charlemagne & luy apporterent de moult beaux presens & aussi leur donna il de ses richesses & principalement à Hildefons, ou Adelphons, Roy de Galice, qui en l'an sept cens quatre vingts dixhuict luy en enuoya de tres beaux, lesquels il auoit gaignez à la prinse de Lisbonne, en Espaigne [...] Là vindrent deuers luy les messagers d'Alphons, Roy de Galice & de plusieurs princes Sarrazins, pour paix & alliacé auoir auec luy » « Meanwhile embassies came from various and strange nations to gain the goodwill and friendship of King Charlemagne and brought him many beautiful gifts, and he also gave them of his riches, and principally to Hildefons, or Adelphons, King of Galicia, who in the year seven hundred and ninety-eight sent him very beautiful ones, which he had won at the taking of Lisbon in Spain [...] There came to him the messengers of Alphons, King of Galicia, and of several Saracen princes, to have peace and alliance with him » ( Nicole Gilles : Les annales et croniques de France , apud Iean Macé, Paris, 1553). • « Alphonsus castus Gallæciæ Rex Imperatorem Carolum, donis & legatione honorat: eiusdem quoque per legatos amicitiam petit Irenes Augusta Orientis » « Alfonso the Chaste, king of Galicia, honours the Emperor Charles with gifts and an embassy; he also seeks through legates the friendship of Irene, Augusta of the East » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani , Vindelicia, 1727). • « Alphons Roy de Galice enuoye un Pauillon à Charlemaigne, qu'il appellois son Seigneur [...] Alphons Roy de Galice prend Lisbonne » « Alphons, King of Galicia, sends a pavilion to Charlemagne, whom he called his Lord [...] Alphons, King of Galicia, takes Lisbon » ( M. Claude Fauchet : Les oeuvres de feu M. Claude Fauchet , apud Iean de Heuqueuville, Paris, 1610). • « I. Concilium id congregatum fuit hortatu Adelphonsi Casti Regis Gallæciæ, consilio Caroli Regis Galliarum & iussu Ioannis VIII Papæ, ad quos legationes circa id missæ fuerunt » « The first council was convened at the urging of Adelphonsus the Chaste, King of Galicia, by the counsel of Charles, King of the Gauls, and by the command of Pope John VIII, to whom legations were sent regarding it » ( José Sáenz de Aguirre : Notitia conciliorum Hispaniae , Salmanticae, 1686). • « [...] et accepta in vxorem altera Adelfonsi regis Galiciæ et Asturiæ filia, in finibus Hispaniae » « [...] and having taken as wife another daughter of Adelfonsus, king of Galicia and Astorga, in the regions of Spain » ( Iacobus Augustus Thuanus : Historiae Sui Temporis , Paris, 1606). • « Ad hæc ultima tempora Caroli Imperatoris, qui prosecuti sunt res Hispanas, referunt decantatam Francorum cladem illam acceptam in saltibus Pyrenaeis, ad Rocidam vallem, vulgo dictam Roncisvalle, in qua præter multos alios cæsos desiderati sunt illi nominatissimi Duces Rotlandus Britanniæ Comes, Anselmus & Eginhardus, ajuntque & Carolum ipsum fractum viribus in Gallias rediisse & paulo post defunctum esse, totumque id facto per Alfonsum Regem Gallæciæ cognomento Castum » « To these last times of the Emperor Charles, those who pursued Spanish affairs refer the celebrated defeat of the Franks received in the Pyrenean passes, at the valley of Rocide, commonly called Roncesvalles, in which besides many others slain, the most famous leaders Roland, Count of Brittany, Anselm and Eginhard were lost, and they say that Charles himself, broken in strength, returned to Gaul and a little later died, and all this was done by Alfonso, King of Galicia, surnamed the Chaste » ( Caesar Baronio : Annales Ecclesiastici Baronii , Tomo XIII, Lucae, 1743). • « Adefonsus, rex Froilani regis filius [...], regni totius Galletiæ, et seu Hispaniae suscepi culmen [...] » « Adefonsus, son of King Froila [...], received the summit of the entire kingdom of Galicia, and even of Spain [...] » ( Lugo, y. 832, in Afonso II’s charter to the city of Lugo ). • « Hoc item anno Alfonsus sive Adefonsus, Rex Gallæciæ, cognomento Catholicus, ubi regnasset annos decem & novem, gloriosus Sarracenorum triumphis migravit ad dominum » « In this same year, Alfonso or Adefonsus, King of Gallaecia, surnamed the Catholic, after reigning nineteen years, glorious with triumphs over the Saracens, departed to the Lord. » ( Caesar Baronio : Annales Ecclesiastici Baronii. Cum Critice Pagii . Tomo XIII, typis Leonardi Veturini, Lucae, 1743). • « Alphonsus Rex Gallæciæ cognomento Catholicus, ubi regnasset annos decem & novem, gloriosus Saracenorum triumphis, ascendit in cœlum » « Alfonso, king of Galicia, surnamed the Catholic, after reigning nineteen years, glorious with triumphs over the Saracens, ascended to heaven.» ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani , Vindelicia, 1727). • « uti in obitu Alfonsi cognomento Catholici Gallæciæ Regis, magni Ecclesiæ defensoris, qui anno falutis [842], migrauit ad cœlum » « As in the death of Alfonso, surnamed the Catholic, King of Galicia, great defender of the Church, who in the year of salvation [842] migrated to heaven. » ( Henricus Marcellius : Oratio Funebris de Vita et Virtutibus Heroicis Melchioris Ottonis Imperialis Ecclesiae Bamb . Typis Episcopalibus Andream Baals, Bambergae, 1653). • « Adfuns 'azîm/malik Yillîqiyyâ » «Adfuns, the great king / king of Yillîqiyyâ [Galicia].» (Crónicas árabes: Al-Nuwayri , Dikr bilad al-Andalus ; Ibn Hayyan ). Miscellanea: References to the Kingdom of Galicia in European Literature (Medieval to Modern Periods). The presence of Galicia in medieval European literature is not limited to historical chronicles or armorials; it also appears in narrative fiction. A significant example is the Breton lay Emaré (14th century, written in Middle English). In this romance, the "kyng of Galys" (King of Galys) is portrayed as a powerful monarch who gathers knights, travels, and returns to his kingdom. The form "Galys" and the stress pattern of the rhymes (Galys – prys, Galys – vyce, Galys – ys) clearly point to Galicia rather than Wales, as the latter was pronounced and rhymed differently in English literature of the period. The story concludes with Emaré, daughter of King Arthur (Artus), bearing a son to the King of Galicia. The child, named Segramowre, becomes King of Galicia and, after the death of his grandfather Arthur, eventually ascends as Emperor. This mention is not isolated. Galicia appears in other medieval works as a distant but recognized kingdom, associated with images of chivalry, power, and remoteness. Its presence in the Breton and English tradition reinforces the idea that, well into the Late Middle Ages, Galicia retained in the European imagination the memory of a distinct realm, separate from the rest of Hispania. Miscellanea: Galicia in Medieval Cartography. Fig. In the Arnamagnaeanisches world map (c. 1250), preserved in Reykjavík, the name “Galicia” is clearly inscribed in the northwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula. This representation shows that, even in the mid-13th century, European cartographers continued to recognize Galicia as a distinct geographical and political entity, separate from the generic term “Hispania”. • Ramirus, Galliciae Rex (842-850). • « Exin Ramirus Hispaniæ Rex religiosissimus, Alfonso Casto in Gallæciæ regnum successet » « Then Ramiro, most religious King of Spain, succeeded Alfonso the Chaste in the kingdom of Galicia » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici ab Ludovico Aurelio Perusino duodecim breviter libris" . Ed. Joannem Wilhelmum Friessem, Colonia, 1685) . • « Hoc eodem anno, qui & secundus numeratur Ranimiri, sive Ramiri, Regis Gallæciæ, Oveti regnantis post Alfonsum Castum, (iuxta exactam temporis ratione ab Ambrosio Morale allatam, qua errores plurium corriguntur) contigit admiranda illa, omni scriptorum genere celebrata, victoria adversus Saracenos obtenta divinitus: cum idem Ramirus Rex maxime pius adversus eos, ob denegatum infame tributum puellarum, quod olim Maurogatus tyrannus eis conſtituerat » « In this same year, which is counted as the second of Ramiro, or Ramiro, King of Galicia, reigning in Oviedo after Alfonso the Chaste, (according to the exact account of time brought forth by Ambrosio de Morales, by which the errors of many are corrected) occurred that admirable victory, celebrated by all kinds of writers, obtained divinely against the Saracens: when the same King Ramiro, most pious, fought against them, having denied the infamous tribute of maidens, which the tyrant Maurogatus had once established for them » ( Cesar Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii" . Tomo XII, apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugduni, 1686). • « Ramirus Gallæciæ Rex, Alphonsi Casti successor, Oveti regnans, eiurato centum puellarum tributo, auxilio S. Jacobi, rite Sacramentis munitus, septuaginta Saracenorum millia cecidit, Sancto Apostolo equitante in equo albo, ac vexillum praeferente; quare Rex victor Hispaniam S. Jacobo reddidit vectigalem, diplomare suo; ut eius antea patronus, deinceps quoque dominus esset » « Ramiro, King of Galicia, successor of Alfonso the Chaste, reigning in Oviedo, having renounced the tribute of one hundred maidens, protected duly by the Sacraments, with the aid of St. James, slew seventy thousand Saracens, with the Holy Apostle riding on a white horse, and carrying the banner; therefore the victorious King rendered Spain tributary to St. James, by his diploma; so that he who was before patron, henceforth should also be lord » ( Philippus Brietius : "Annales mundi sive chronicon universale. 2,2: Ab Initio Regni Francorum ad expeditionem primam Francorum in Orientem" . Ed. Bencard, Augustae Vindelicorum, 1696). • « Ramirus Gallæciæ Rex, religione ductus Saracenis negauit infame tributum centum puellarum, quod Rex Maurogatus ipsis constituerat » « Ramiro, King of Galicia, led by religious conviction, denied to the Saracens the infamous tribute of one hundred maidens, which King Maurogatus had established for them » ( Honorato Nicqueto : "Stimulus ingrati animi" , apud Petrum Hubault, Rothomagi, 1661). • « Quod autem ad res Christianorum, seorsum in Gallæcia, regnantium spectat, hoc ipso anno Ranimirus Rex successor Alfonsi Casti, ex hac vita discessit, die prima Februarij, sepultus Oveti, ex sepulchri inscriptione", qua corrigendi reliqui omnes rerum Hispanicarum tractatores, in eius Regis tempore. Porro Ranimiro successit Ordonius, regnavitque annis duodecim, ex altera veteri inscriptione » « But as regards the affairs of the Christians, reigning separately in Galicia, in this same year King Ramiro, successor of Alfonso the Chaste, departed from this life, on the first day of February, buried in Oviedo, according to the inscription of the sepulchre", by which all the other writers of Spanish affairs are to be corrected, concerning the time of this King. Moreover, Ordoño succeeded Ramiro, and reigned twelve years, according to another old inscription » ( Cesar Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii" . Tomo XII, apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugduni, 1686). • « Eo anno mortuus est Ranimirus filius Veremudi, rex Gallecie, et filius eius Ordonius successit in regno » « In that year died Ramiro, son of Vermudo, king of Galicia, and his son Ordoño succeeded to the kingdom » ( "Corpus Christianorum. Continuatio Mediaevalis, LXXIIC, Roderici Ximenii. Opera omnia. Pars III. Historiae minores. XXVII" . Ed. J. Fernández Valverde, Turnhout, 1999). • « Hoc item ipso anno Æra numerum octogesima octava, Calendis Februarii, Ranimirus Rex Gallæciæ maxime pius ex hac vita decessit; ut constat ex epitaphio inscripto eius sepulchro, quod refert Ambrosius Morales: ex quo erroris arguuntur reliqui omnes Rerum Hispanicarum tractatores, qui eiusdem Regis ingressum ponunt anno Domini octingentesimo vigesimo tertio & annos sex & menses novem regnasse tradunt. Porro Ranimiro successit eodem die Ordonius filius, regnavitque annis duodecim » « In this same year, Era number eight hundred and eighty-eight, on the Kalends of February, King Ramiro of Galicia, most pious, departed from this life; as is evident from the epitaph inscribed on his sepulchre, which Ambrosio de Morales reports: from which all the other writers of Spanish affairs are proved to be in error, who place the accession of this King in the year of our Lord eight hundred and twenty-three and report that he reigned six years and nine months. Moreover, on the same day his son Ordoño succeeded Ramiro, and reigned twelve years » ( Cesar Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii" . Tomo XII, apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). • « Quo etiam anno obiit magnus ille Ramirius Gallæciæ Rex, ex æquo pius ac fortis, cui filius Ordonius successit, patris exemplo ad bene sperandum invitatus » « In which same year died that great Ramiro, King of Galicia, equally pious and brave, to whom his son Ordoño succeeded, invited by the example of his father to hope well » ( Philippus Brietius : "Annales mundi sive chronicon universale. 2,2: Ab Initio Regni Francorum ad expeditionem primam Francorum in Orientem" . Ed. Bencard, Augustae Vindelicorum, 1696). • « In eadem Hispania hoc anno moritur Ranimirus, sive Ramirus, Gallæciæ Rex, eique succedit Ordonius filius » « In the same Spain, in this year dies Ramiro, or Ramiro, King of Galicia, and his son Ordoño succeeds him » ( Augustinus Sartorius : "Compendium Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Eminentissimi Cardinalis Baronii" . T. III, Ed. Pauli Lochneri, Praga, 1736). • « Trigesimo nono, Bonifacius Corsicæ Comes, Hugo Rex Italiæ, Ramyrus Rex Galletiæ, Otho Primus Imperator, Henricus Secundus Imperator, Carolus Magnus & Ludouicus Reges Galliæ, Robertus Northmannus, Rogerius Rex Siciliæ [...] » « In the thirty-ninth [year], Boniface Count of Corsica, Hugh King of Italy, Ramiro King of Galicia, Otto First Emperor, Henry Second Emperor, Charlemagne & Louis Kings of France, Robert the Norman, Roger King of Sicily [...] » ( Camillo Borrello : "De regis catholici præstantia, eius regalibus iuribus, & prærogatiuis commentarii Camillo Borrello. Cap. XXXII" , apud Hieronymum Bordonum, Mediolanum, 1611). • Ordonius I, Galliciae Rex (850-866). • « Anno 861, ut ex veteribus monumentis constat, vita functo Ordonio Gallæciæ in Hispania Rege, successit in regnum filius eius Alfonsus, sive Adefonsus, cognomento Magnus » « In the year 861, as is evident from ancient monuments, Ordoño, King of Galicia in Spain, having departed from this life, his son Alfonso, or Adefonsus, surnamed the Great, succeeded to the kingdom » ( Cesar Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii" . Tomo XII, apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). ( Ioanne Eusebio Nierembergio : "Trophaea Mariana Seu De Victrice Misericordia Deiparae Patrocinantis Hominibus" , apud Viduam & Haeredes Ioannis Cnobbari, Antuerpia, 1658, p. 51). • « Ordonio Gallæciæ Rege vita functo, succedit ei filius Alphonsus Magnus, qui thesauros Patris erogavit in pauperes & Ecclesias, multis ideo auctus victoriis contra Arabes » « Ordoño, King of Galicia, having departed from this life, his son Alfonso the Great succeeded him, who distributed the treasures of his Father among the poor and the Churches, and for this reason was increased with many victories against the Arabs » ( Anonymus : "Prognosis conjecturalis astrologica [vel Calendarium Tyrnaviense]" . Typis Academicis, Tyrnavia, 1687). • « Eodem anno, vita functo Ordonio Gallæciæ in Hispania Rege, cui filius Alfonsus cognomento Magnus successit » « In the same year, Ordoño, King of Galicia in Spain, having departed from this life, to whom his son Alfonso, surnamed the Great, succeeded » ( Cesar Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii" . Tomo XII, apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). ( Jonge Boudewijn : "V.P.F. Balduini Iunii, Ordinis Seraphici S. Francisci Regularis Observantiae, Chronicon Morale. Ab anno Domini 600 usque ad annum 900. Pars Tertia" , apud Bernhardi Gualtheri, Colonia, 1522). • « Moritur Ordonius Gallæciæ Rex, cui succedit in Regnum filius eius Alphonsus cognomento Magnus, princeps in pauperes & Ecclesias liberalissimus » « Ordoño, King of Galicia, dies, to whom his son Alfonso, surnamed the Great, succeeds to the Kingdom, a prince most generous to the poor and the Churches » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" . Imprensis Georgii Schütter et Martini Happach, Vindelicia, 1727). • « Ordonio Gallæciæ Rege vita functo, Alfonsus filius regnum capessit, qui Magni nomen non pietatis minus, quam bellicæ virtutis iure adeptus est » « Ordoño, King of Galicia, having departed from this life, his son Alfonso takes up the kingdom, who earned the name of Great not less by right of piety than of military virtue » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici ab Ludovico Aurelio Perusino duodecim breviter libris" , apud Joannem Wilhelmum Friessem, Colonia, 1685). • « Ordonio Gallæciæ Rege vita functo, successit ei filius Alphonsus Magnus, qui thesauros patris erogavit in pauperes & Ecclesias & S. Jacobi ædem terream, lapideam fecit; multis ideo auctus victoriis adversus Arabas, Dei hactenus armis potius quam hominum attritos, aut repressos » « Ordoño, King of Galicia, having departed from this life, his son Alfonso the Great succeeded him, who distributed the treasures of his father among the poor and the Churches, and made the earthly temple of St. James into stone; and for this reason was increased with many victories against the Arabs, worn down or repressed until then by the arms of God rather than of men » ( Philippus Brietius : "Annales mundi sive chronicon universale. 2,2: Ab Initio Regni Francorum ad expeditionem primam Francorum in Orientem" . (Ed.) Bencard, Augustae Vindelicorum, 1696). • « Urdun 'azîm/malik al-yalâliqa » « Ordoño the Great / King of the galicians » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan , Ibn Khaldun , al-Maqqari ). Miscellanea: References to the Kingdom of Galicia in European Literature (Medieval to Modern Periods). Icelandic saga. A chivalric story where the king of Galicia is called Heliseus and his son, the protagonist, Saulus. The fictional story takes place entirely in the kingdom of Galicia. Miscellanea: Galicia in Medieval Cartography. Fig. Mapa světa Heinricha I z Mainz, y. 1100: Galicia - Hispania. • Alfonsus III, Galliciae Rex (866-910). • « Alfonsus Ordonii Gallæciæ in Hispania Regis » « Alfonso, son of Ordoño, King of Galicia in Spain » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici ab Ludovico Aurelio Perusino duodecim breviter libris" , apud Joannem Wilhelmum Friessem, Colonia, 1685). • « Alfonsus Magnus rex Gallæciæ: Eodem anno, vita functo Ordonio Gallæciæ in Hispania rege, filius Alfonsus, cognomento Magnus, successit » « Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia: In the same year, Ordoño, King of Galicia in Spain, having departed from this life, his son Alfonso, surnamed the Great, succeeded him » ( Jonge Boudewijn : "V.P.F. Balduini Iunii, Ordinis Seraphici S. Francisci Regularis Observantiae, Chronicon Morale. Ab anno Domini 600 usque ad annum 900. Pars Tertia" , apud Bernhardi Gualtheri, Colonia, 1522). • « Hadefuns rex Galletiæ Karolo prius munera preciosa itemque manubias suas pro munere misit... Adelfonsus Galliciae Rex amicitia devinctus erat Carolo » « Afonso, King of Galicia, previously sent precious gifts and his spoils of war as a present to Charles... Alfonso, King of Galicia, was bound by friendship to Charles » ( "Hermanni Contracti Monachi Reichenaugensis Chronicon ex inedito hucusque Codice Augiensi, una cum eius vita et continuatione a Bertholdo, eius discipulo, scripta. Subiicitur Chronicon Peter Shusanum ineditum" . Patrologia Latina, vol. 143, J. P. Migne, Paris, 1853 / "Hermanni Augiensis Chronicon", MGH, vol. V, Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1844). • « Carolus rex princeps et Adefonsus rex Galliciarum, filius Ordinis regis, contemporanei fuerunt amicitiasque maximas, dum vixerunt, ad invicem habuerunt » « King Charles, the Prince, and Alfonso, King of the Galicias, son of King Ordoño, were contemporaries and maintained great friendships with each other while they lived » ( "Liber Historiae Francorum (add. B 2c3) [nota do anónimo continuador de Gregorio de Tours]" . MGH, Scriptorum, II, Hannover 1888). • « Hoc enim vixere S. Henricus Imperator, qui Othoni III datus est successor, S. Eduardus Rex Angliæ, S. Heraldus Rex Daniae, S. Stephanus Rex Hungariæ, duoque alii Reges tametsi publico invocandorum Sanctorum albo non adscripti, sanctitate nihilominus & miraculis illustres, Robertus Rex Franciæ & Adelfonsus Rex Gallæciæ » « For in this time lived St. Henry Emperor, who was given as successor to Otto III, St. Edward King of England, St. Harold King of Denmark, St. Stephen King of Hungary, and two other Kings who, although not inscribed in the public roll of Saints to be invoked, were nevertheless illustrious in holiness and miracles: Robert King of France & Alfonso King of Galicia » ( Joannis Cabassutii : "R.P. Joannis Cabassutii Aquisextensis Presbyteri Congregationis Oratorii Domini Jesu Historiae Ecclesiasticae Pars Prima" . Typis Friderici Gabr. Mangoldi, Colegio Passavii, 1760). • « Facta carta in era DCCCC. XXXª. I., regnante rege Fortunio Garcianes in Pampilona et comite Galindo Asnar in Aragon, Adifonsus in Gallecia, Garcia Sanz in Gallias, [---] » « Charter made in era 931 [893 AD], with King Fortuño Garcés reigning in Pamplona, Count Galindo Aznar in Aragon, Alfonso in Galicia, Garcia Sanchez in Gascony, [...] » ( Antonio Ubieto Arteta : "Cartulario de San Juan de la Peña I" . Textos Medievales 6, Valencia, 1962, pp. 34-35 [an. 893]). • « Ioannes Episcopus, seruus seruorum Dei. Dilecto filio Adefonso glorioso regi Galliciarum » « John, Bishop, servant of the servants of God. To his beloved son Alfonso, glorious King of the Galicias » ( Ioannis Tamayo de Salazar : "Anamnesis sive commemoratio omnium sanctorum Hispanorum: Acta Consecrationis S. & Apostolica Ecclesiae Compostellanae a Sampiro Asturicensi Episcopo & Privilegiis Adefonsi Magni Regis Galleciæ conscripta" . T. VI, vol. III, sumptib. Phil. Borde, Laur. Arnaud & Cl. Rigaud, Lugdunum, 1655, pp. 95-96). • « Sed antequam claudamus præsentis anni periodum, Catholici Regis Alphonsi Magni, in Gallæcia regnantis, prodamus egregium pietatis monumentum. Ipse enim unicum Hispaniarum præsidium, Arabum terror, ad evitandos improvisos Northmannorum incursus, Oveti munitionem construxit, ubi in Ecclesia Sancti Salvatoris translatas Toleto & aliis Hispaniarum ecclesiis venerandas Sanctorum reliquias, loco tutissimo asservari voluit. In qua pariter ecclesia ide religiosissimus Princeps aurea crucem, gemmis ornata, miræ magnitudinis & pulchritudinis hoc ipso anno obtulit » « But before we close the period of the present year, let us bring forth the excellent monument of piety of the Catholic King Alfonso the Great, reigning in Galicia. For he, the only defense of the Spains, terror of the Arabs, built the fortification of Oviedo to avoid the unexpected incursions of the Northmen, where in the Church of Holy Savior he wished the venerable relics of the Saints, transferred from Toledo and other churches of the Spains, to be kept in a very safe place. In the same church, this most religious Prince offered a golden cross, adorned with gems, of wonderful size and beauty in this same year » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii duodecim breviter libris" , apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). • « Hoc pariter anno Gallæciæ Rex Alfonsus aduersus Sarracenos, ac Northmannos munitione Oueti excitata, eam non tam militum, quam sacrarum reliquiarum, quas undique conquisiuerat, præsidio firmauit » « In this same year, Alfonso, King of Galicia, having raised the fortification of Oviedo against the Saracens and the Northmen, strengthened it not so much with soldiers, as with the protection of sacred relics, which he had gathered from everywhere » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici ab Ludovico Aurelio Perusino duodecim breviter libris" , apud Joannem Wilhelmum Friessem, Colonia, 1685). • « Alfonsus Gallæciæ Rex in Hispania, Arabumque terror, munitione, aduersus Sarracenos, ac Normannos, Oueti excitata, eam non tam militum, quam sacrarum reliquiarum, quas undiquaque conquisierar, præsidio firmauit, eodem Christi. Anno octingentesimo septuagesimo octauo » « Alfonso, King of Galicia in Spain, and terror of the Arabs, having raised the fortification of Oviedo against the Saracens and the Normans, strengthened it not so much with soldiers, as with the protection of sacred relics, which he had gathered from all places, in the same year of Christ 878 » ( Iacobus Goutoulas Tolosano : "Universa historia profana. Pars Secunda" . Ed. Dion, Bechet & Lud. Billaine, París, 1659). • « Ad hoc pariter tempus commendat Adefondum magnum, Gallæciæ Regem, pietate Christiani præstantem, ac Saracenorum in Hispania terrorem, ob extructam tunc Oveti validissimam munitionem, in quam sacratissimas undique congessit Reliquias, tuto ibidem conservandas » « At this same time, he commends Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia, excelling in Christian piety, and terror of the Saracens in Spain, for the very strong fortification of Oviedo built at that time, into which he gathered most sacred Relics from everywhere, to be preserved safely there » ( Augustinus Sartorius : "Compendium Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Eminentissimi Cardinalis Baronii. Pars III" . Ed. Pauli Lochneri, Praga, 1736). • « Quo pariter anno fœdere icto inter Rex Regem Gallæciæ & Regem Arabum Cordubæ regnantem Moamad, ad sexennium, per Dulcitium Toletanum presbyterum facta est traslatio corporum S.S. Martyrum Eulogii, atque Leocritiæ, qui Cordubæ martyrium subierant, Ovetum, quorum in sanandis ægris virtus miraculorum eluxit » « In that same year, a treaty having been struck between the King of Galicia and the King of the Arabs reigning in Cordoba, Muhammad, for six years, through Dulcitius, Toledan priest, the transfer of the bodies of the Holy Martyrs Eulogius and Leocritia, who had suffered martyrdom in Cordoba, to Oviedo was made, whose power of miracles shone forth in healing the sick » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici ab Ludovico Aurelio Perusino duodecim breviter libris" , apud Joannem Wilhelmum Friessem, Colonia, 1685). • « Quo pariter anno, fœdere icto inter Alfonsum regem Gallæciæ & regem Arabum, Cordubæ regnatem, Maomad, ad septennium, per Dulcitiu Toletanum Presbyteru facta est traslatio corporum SS. Martyrum Eologii, atque Leocritiæ, qui Cordube Martyrium subierant » « In that same year, a treaty having been struck between Alfonso, King of Galicia, and the King of the Arabs, reigning in Cordoba, Muhammad, for seven years, through Dulcitius, Toledan Priest, the transfer of the bodies of the Holy Martyrs Eulogius and Leocritia, who had suffered martyrdom in Cordoba, was made » ( Jonge Boudewijn : "V.P.F. Balduini Iunii, Ordinis Seraphici S. Francisci Regularis Observantiae, Chronicon Morale. Ab anno Domini 600 usque ad annum 900. Pars Tertia" , apud Bernhardi Gualtheri, Colonia, 1522). • « Martyrio coronatus est S. Eulogius Cordubensis Presbyter & olim designatus Toletanus Antistes, cum Leocritia virgine Mahumetana, ex regia sobole, quam ille pepererat Christo; quorum corpora, magnis miraculis illustrata, Ovetum translata sunt ab Alphonso Magno Gallæciæ Rege, ad honorem & tutelam regiæ suæ civitatis » « St. Eulogius, Priest of Cordoba and formerly designated Bishop of Toledo, was crowned with martyrdom, with Leocritia, a Muslim virgin, of royal offspring, whom he had borne to Christ; whose bodies, illuminated by great miracles, were transferred to Oviedo by Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia, for the honor and protection of his royal city » ( Philippus Brietius : "Annales mundi sive chronicon universale. 2,2: Ab Initio Regni Francorum ad expeditionem primam Francorum in Orientem" . Ed. Bencard, Augustae Vindelicorum, 1696). • « Interim contigit advenire legatione ab Alphonso Magno Rege Galleciæ & Episcopis, qua tria petebantur ab Apost. Sede [...] » « Meanwhile it happened that a legation arrived from Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia, and the Bishops, by which three things were requested from the Apostolic See [...] » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii duodecim breviter libris" , apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). • « Successit Leandro Isidorus doctrina sanctitateq; nobilis; cuius corpus nostra ætate Aldefonsus rex Gallitiæ Toletum transtulit, ad pondus auro comparatum. Saraceni enim, qui Gothos subiugarant, ipsi quoq; a Carolo Magno victi, Gallitiam & Lusitaniam maximas Hispanie provincias amiserunt » « Isidore succeeded Leander, noble in doctrine and holiness; whose body in our age Alfonso, King of Galicia, transferred to Toledo, purchased for its weight in gold. For the Saracens, who had subjugated the Goths, themselves also having been defeated by Charlemagne, lost Galicia and Lusitania, the greatest provinces of Spain » ( Willielmi Malmesburiensis : "De Gestis Regum Anglorum. Liber II. Epistola Iohannis Papae, decimi quinti" . Patrologia Latina, vol. 179, apud J.-P. Migne successores, Paris, 1899). • « In quem finem etiam Adefondum Magnum Gallæciæ Regem per literas interpellavit, ad submittendos sibi ex Hispania equos idoneos adversus eosdem hostes » « For this purpose, he also appealed by letter to Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia, to send him from Spain suitable horses against the same enemies » ( Augustinus Sartorius : "Compendium Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Eminentissimi Cardinalis Baronii. Pars III" . Ed. Pauli Lochneri, Praga, 1736). • « Alfonsus Magnus Gallæciæ Rex in Hispania, ut subditos sibi populos fessos grauiter, fractolque tot bellorum tumultibus, recrearet; inducias cum Mahomede Sarracenorum Rege, qui Cordubæ sedem fixerat, ad sexcennium pactus est, Anno Christi octingentesimo octogesimo quarto, Caroli Crassi quarto, Basilii decimo octauo » « Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia in Spain, in order to refresh his subjects, who were seriously weary and broken by so many tumults of wars, made a truce with Muhammad, King of the Saracens, who had established his seat in Cordoba, for six years, in the Year of Christ 884, the fourth of Charles the Fat, the eighteenth of Basil » ( Iacobus Goutoulas Tolosano : "Universa historia profana. Pars Secunda" . Ed. Dion, Bechet & Lud. Billaine, París, 1659). • « Ac vero Alfonsus Rex Gallæciæ, ut subditos sibi populos diuturno fesios bello recrearet, cum Maomed Sarracenorum Rege, qui Cordubae regni sedem fixerat, inducias ad sexennium pactus est » « And indeed Alfonso, King of Galicia, in order to refresh his subjects, weary from prolonged war, made a truce for six years with Muhammad, King of the Saracens, who had established the seat of his kingdom in Cordoba » ( Cesare Baronio : " Annales ecclesiastici ab Ludovico Aurelio Perusino duodecim breviter libris" , apud Joannem Wilhelmum Friessem, Colonia, 1685). • « Eodem anno Rex Gallæciæ Adefonsus cognomento Magnus, bene dispositis rebus Ecclesiasticis, adversus Arabes bellum gerens, ingentem de ipsis est victoriam consecutus; cadente in prælio illorum Duce primario Alcaman a suis uti propheta culto » « In the same year, Alfonso, King of Galicia, surnamed the Great, having well arranged Ecclesiastical affairs, waging war against the Arabs, achieved a great victory over them; with their primary leader Alcaman, worshipped by his own as a prophet, falling in battle » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii duodecim breviter libris" , apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). • « Rex Gallæciæ Alphonsus Magnus, bene compositis Ecclesiæ rebus, Arabas aggressus nobilem de iis victoriam retulit; quando eorum Dux præcipuus Alcaman & habitus ut prophetes, in prælio cecidit; nec de aliis bene, male de se vaticinatus » « Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia, having well arranged the affairs of the Church, attacked the Arabs and achieved a noble victory over them; when their principal leader Alcaman, regarded as a prophet, fell in battle; and he who had prophesied well about others, prophesied badly about himself » ( Philippus Brietius : "Annales mundi sive chronicon universale. 2,2: Ab Initio Regni Francorum ad expeditionem primam Francorum in Orientem" . Ed. Bencard, Augustae Vindelicorum, 1696). • « Alphonsus Magnus, Gallæciæ Rex, ingentem victoriam de Arabibus reportat » « Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia, achieved a great victory over the Arabs » ( Anonymus : "Prognosis conjecturalis astrologica [vel Calendarium Tyrnaviense]" . Typis Academicis, Tyrnavia, 1687). • « Alphonsus Rex Gallæciæ repullulantem in Hispania hæresin radicitus extirpat » « Alfonso, King of Galicia, rooted out completely the heresy sprouting again in Spain » ( Márton Szentiványi : "Curiosiora et Selectiora Variarum Scientiarum Miscellanea. Pars 1.3" , apud Joannen Andream Hörmann, Tyrnaviae, 1689). • « Alfonsus Gallæciæ Rex, ingentem de Arabibus victoriam reportat, cadente etiam in prælio eorum Duce primario, Alcaman, quem fui ut Prophetam coluerunt » « Alfonso, King of Galicia, achieved a great victory over the Arabs, with their primary leader Alcaman also falling in battle, whom they worshipped as a Prophet » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" . Imprensis Georgii Schütter et Martini Happach, Vindelicia, 1727). • « Anno 906, tædio longe præfecturæ Regis Gallæciæ Adefonsi, eius filius primogenitus Garsias nomine, adiuvante matre & fratribus, conspiravit in patrem » « In the year 906, weary of the long rule of Alfonso, King of Galicia, his firstborn son, named Garcia, with the help of his mother and brothers, conspired against his father » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii duodecim breviter libris" , apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). ( Ioanne Eusebio Nierembergio : "Trophaea Mariana Seu De Victrice Misericordia Deiparae Patrocinantis Hominibus" , apud Viduam & Haeredes Ioannis Cnobbari, Antuerpia, 1658, p. 53). • « Tædio longæ Præfecturæ Regis Gallæciæ Alfonsi, eius filius primogenitus Garsias, adiuvante matre & fratribus, conspirat in patrem; cui ille, nolens civili & domestico ello exhauriri regni vires in utilitatem hostium, seipsum superans, sponte cedit » « Weary of the long rule of Alfonso, King of Galicia, his firstborn son Garcia, with the help of his mother and brothers, conspired against his father; to whom he, not wishing the strength of the kingdom to be exhausted by civil and domestic war to the benefit of enemies, overcoming himself, voluntarily yielded » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" . Imprensis Georgii Schütter et Martini Happach, Vindelicia, 1727). • « Quo etiam anno Adefondus Gallæciæ Rex victoriis contra Saracenos & pietate erga Deum vere Magnus, fatis excessit, cum regnasset annos quadraginta sex, quem Garsias eius filius, qui Regnum ipsius ante mortem parentis invaserat, triennio post e divina ultione est secutus » « In that same year, Alfonso, King of Galicia, truly Great in victories against the Saracens and in piety towards God, departed from this life, having reigned forty-six years; whom Garcia, his son, who had invaded his Kingdom before the death of his parent, followed three years later by divine vengeance » ( Augustinus Sartorius : "Compendium Annalium Ecclesiasticorum Eminentissimi Cardinalis Baronii. Pars III" . Ed. Pauli Lochneri, Praga, 1736). • « Diem quoque obit Alphonsus Magnus Gallæciæ quondam Rex » « Also, Alfonso the Great, formerly King of Galicia, died » ( Ignatius Brentano Cimarolo : "Epitome Chronologica Mundi Christiani" . Imprensis Georgii Schütter et Martini Happach, Vindelicia, 1727). • « In hunc usque annum superstitem fuisse Gallæciæ Regem Adefonsum Magnum, cum regnasset annis quadraginta sex, (ultra quatuor illos quibus cessit Garsiæ filio) ex veteribus monumentis tradit Ambrosius Morales » « Until this year, Alfonso the Great, King of Galicia, survived, having reigned forty-six years (beyond those four in which he yielded to his son Garcia), as Ambrosius Morales relates from ancient monuments » ( Cesare Baronio : "Annales ecclesiastici Baronii duodecim breviter libris" , apud Posuel et Rigaut, Lugdunum, 1686). • « Adfuns, 'azîm Yillîqiyyâ/'azîm al-yalâliqa » « Alfonso, the King of Galicia / the King of the Galicians » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan ). • « Adfuns, al-yillîqa » « Alfonso, the Galician » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Marwán ). • « Adfuns ibn Urdun, 'azîm Yillîqiyyâ » « Alfonso, son of Ordoño, King of Galicia » (Arab Chronicles: Ibn Hayyan ). • « dirixiuse Alfonso fillo de Ordoño, rei de Galicia, á cidade de Zamora, a despoboada, e construina e urbanizouna, e fortificouna e poboouna con cristiáns, e restaurou tódalas súas contornas » « Alfonso, son of Ordoño, King of Galicia, went to the city of Zamora, the depopulated, and built it and urbanized it, and fortified it and populated it with Christians, and restored all its surroundings » (Arab Chronicles: Isa ibn Ahmad al-Razi ). Miscellanea: References to the Kingdom of Galicia in European Literature (Medieval to Modern Periods). "It covers the history of the world, with special emphasis on the chronicle and deeds of Liège (vol. 1-6), often mixing imagination with historical reality. Importance: Although it is not a precise historical source, it is crucial for understanding the mythology and worldview of the 14th century." The Kingdom of Galicia in the texts (413-1845) II. Principes Galleciæ sedem transtulerunt Legione = The princes of Galicia moved their seat to León.