The Kingdom of Galicia in the texts (413-1845).

I. GALLAECIA: GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL IDENTITY The geographical designation Hispania emerged in the time of Artemidorus (1st century BCE), following the conclusion of the Lusitanian Wars. It likely derives from a Semitic term ( is , Phoenician is , of uncertain meaning – cf. Is-pale, Bait-Is, Is-torg-is, possibly linked to the Guadalquivir River), which replaced the earlier Greek name: Iberia . Eratosthenes map (III - II b.C.) Even earlier, the Greeks divided the Peninsula into two distinct regions. Iberia proper extended along the Mediterranean seaboard as far as the Hérault River in southeastern France, home to the Iberians (with Tartessos representing a special case). The broader area, Κελτική (Celtica), covered the entire western Peninsula and was inhabited by the Κελτιβέροι (“Celts of Iberia”). These should not be confused with the historical Celtiberians of the Upper Meseta – a mixed Celtic-Iberian people known from the Second Punic War – nor with the Κέλτικοι , who descend from those earlier Κελτιβέροι. Artemidoros map (I b.C.) With the arrival of Roman conquest in the south, geographical names evolved according to the most prominent peoples subdued. Thus, the old Greek Κελτική was replaced by Lusitania , which occupied roughly the same original territory (from Gades to the Cantabrian Sea and much of the interior). This ethnonym arose after the prolonged war between Rome and the Lusitanians, pushing the frontier as far as the Douro River. Pomponius Mela map (I a.C.) Similarly, after Decimus Brutus’s decisive victory over the Callaeci of the Douro and the subjugation of the coastal peoples between the Douro and the Miño, a new designation emerged that encompassed the entire northwestern quadrant: Callaecia . (A parallel process occurred in the Upper Meseta, where “Celtiberian” was applied even to peoples outside the Ebro Valley mixed group.) Whereas the Bracari or Artabri had once been called Lusitanians, they now became generically known as Callaeci (a people that later vanished as such). Over time, the name designated the full Roman province, divided into three conventus: Bracara (Braga), Lucus (Lugo), and Asturica (Astorga). Ptolemy map (II a.C.) This geographical space remained remarkably stable with the arrival of the Suebi and the establishment of their kingdom, which naturally adopted the name of the province: Gallaecia (already linked to Gallia). The Suevic kingdom extended eastward to the Pisuerga River, following the Douro, and by conquest reached as far as the River Lamego (between the Tagus and the Douro). This territory – whether as the Suevic kingdom or as an autonomous Visigothic province – retained the same designation until the fragmentation into the kingdoms of Portugal, Castile, Galicia, and León after the reign of Alfonso VII. This geographical and political Gallaecia was far more than a Roman administrative label. It became a living reality, reflected in European literature, diplomacy, and collective consciousness for centuries – as we shall see in the following sections. The Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula: Gallaecia in Remote Antiquity The northwestern corner of the Iberian Peninsula, which we call Greater Gallaecia, was widely known and visited from the most remote antiquity. Its shores were already frequented by Phoenician traders as early as the 1st millennium BCE, in search of gold, tin, and women. The region was also renowned and sought after for its hyperthermal springs. Gallaecia was therefore a sufficiently well-defined and described space, requiring only a few indications to locate it on any map. Chief among these was the toponym Brigantia , referring to the principal city – the ancient Magnus Portus Artabrorum de Luco , likely the present-day A Coruña. This was one of the main ports for maritime trade in goods between northern Europe and the Mediterranean, dating back well beyond the Atlantic Bronze Age. Equally significant was the Farum , the lighthouse built by the Romans, rising to 80 metres in height on an equally elevated promontory. Visible from afar, it served not only as a marker for the proximity of the port of Brigantia, but also as a beacon signalling the turn into the Atlantic Ocean. The Anglo-Saxon 'Cotton' world map (c. 1040): BRIGANTIA, today A Coruña This enduring geographical and cultural identity is vividly captured in the words of Paulus Orosius (early 5th century AD), who describes the region with remarkable precision: “The second angle extends toward the northwest, where Brigantia, a city of Gallaecia, is situated. There stands the tallest lighthouse, one of the few truly remarkable works of engineering, erected as a mirror for Britain [...] The island of Hibernia lies between Britain and Hispania, stretching farther northward from the southwest. Its forward parts face the Cantabrian Ocean and look out across a wide expanse toward Brigantia, the city of Gallaecia, which confronts it from the southwest to the northwest.” This perception of the northwestern Atlantic as a fierce and ominous sea is echoed in early medieval sources. Paul the Deacon, in his Historia Langobardorum (Book I, ca. 763 AD), records the belief that: “They affirm [that the ocean] is fierce and for this reason very deep between the island of Britain and the province of Gallaecia.” ( Pauli Historia Langobardorum , Lib. I, MGH, Rerum Germanicarum, Hannover, 1878, p. 56) Paul’s description of the ocean as a “vorago” – a fierce, deep abyss – reflects the real dangers of the Atlantic coast: powerful tides, sudden storms, and dramatic currents. These accounts reinforced Gallaecia’s image as a remote, almost mythical frontier of the Roman and post-Roman world – a land reached only by the bravest sailors, marked by its towering lighthouse and guarded by an ocean as formidable as it was beautiful. The Administrative and Ecclesiastical Division of Gallaecia The northwestern Iberian Peninsula, which we call Greater Gallaecia, formed one of the six provinces of the Roman and Visigothic administrative system, alongside Baetica, Lusitania, Tarraconensis, Carthaginensis, and (later) Narbonensis. This division remained in force from the time of Polemius Silvius (ca. 385 AD) until the Visigothic period. The province or kingdom of Galicia (Galliciense) occupied virtually the entire northwestern quadrant of the Iberian Peninsula. As Sigebert of Gembloux states in his Chronica (covering the years 718–732): “The kingdom of the third part of the Spains, which is called that of the Galicians, which neither the Visigoths at that time nor the Saracens afterwards were able to subdue, still endures intact, and remains impregnable under the protection of God and the faith.” (Sigberti Gemblacensis: Chronica , MGH, T. VI, Georgius Heinricus Pertz, Hannover, 1844, p. 330) The Cantabrian mountain range was an extension of the Pyrenees, and at its western end lived the Astures: “Where the yoke of the Pyrenees, not far from the second Ocean, descends toward the north, the Astures inhabit a portion of Gallaecia [...]” (Ludovicus Nonius: Hispania sive populorum, urbium, insularum ac fluminum in ea accuratior descriptio , Officina Hieronymi Verdussi, Antwerp, 1607, p. 144) In the time of Isidore of Seville (7th century), Cantabria was included within Galicia: “The regions are parts of the provinces [...] as in Galicia: Cantabria, Asturia.” (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae ) Asturias itself belonged to the diocese of Britonia (Bretoña): “[Lucus]: XIII.1. To the see of the Britons belong the churches that are among the Britons, together with the monastery of Maximus, and those that are in Asturia.” (F. Glorié: Parrochiale Sueuum , Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina CLXXV, Turnhout, 1965, pp. 143 ss.) The ecclesiastical divisions drawn from the Visigothic conciliar administrative policy, as reflected in the Nomina civitatum Ispanie sedes episcopalium de Gallicia , list the following sees in Galicia: Bracara , Dumio, Portucale (including Magneto from 580), Tude, Auriense, Lucu, Brittania, Asturica, Iria, and possibly Beteke. (Codex Ovetense del Escorial, ca. 780 AD) Bracara sedes : Dumio, Portucale, Tude, Auriense, Lucu, Britonia, Asturica et Iria. (Mozarabic Codex, National Library of Madrid, 9th century) “It [Spain] has six provinces with episcopal sees: (...) The fourth province is GALLICIA: Bracara metropolis, Dumio, Portucale, Tude, Auriense, Yria, Luco, Bretonia et Asturica.” (Chronica Albeldense, III.10) HISPANIA & GALLECIA (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae ) The Economy From the early medieval period onward, Gallaecia (Galicia) was recognized not only as a fertile and productive land, but also as a significant exporter of a wide range of goods. Its economy thrived on agriculture, fishing, linen production, and other resources, making it a key trading partner for northern Europe — particularly Flanders, where Galician linen was highly valued for the production of fine cloth (lienzo). 1. Fertility and Agricultural Wealth Isidore of Seville, in his Etymologiae (Book XIV, Chapter II, early 7th century), already highlighted the exceptional productivity of Gallaecia: “Et Gallæcia et Hispania non solum in vineis, sed etiam in agris fructuosae sunt” “Both Gallaecia and Hispania are fruitful not only in vineyards, but also in fields.” (Isidori Hispalensis Etymologiae, ed. José Oroz Reta & Manuel A. Marcos Casquero, BAC, Madrid, 2004) This reputation for fertile lands continued into later centuries. 2. Praise in Carolingian Poetry Theodulf of Orléans, a Visigothic scholar at the court of Charlemagne, wrote in his Carmina (Book VI, Verse V, ca. 798–818): “Galliciique soli veniat si cultor opimus, Finitimis praestat qui bona pulchra suis” “If the richest farmer comes from Galician soil, he surpasses his neighbours in the beautiful goods he produces.” (Theodulfi Aurelianensis Episcopi: Carmina, Lib. VI. V, Patrologia Latina, Vol. CV, ed. J.-P. Migne, Paris, 1864, p. 382) 3. Exports to Flanders (13th–14th centuries) Flemish sources explicitly list Galicia as a major supplier of high-value goods. Warnkönig’s Histoire de la Flandre (mid-19th century compilation of medieval trade records) records: “Du royaume de Galice vient sains, vif-argent, vin, cuirs, peleterie et laine” “From the kingdom of Galicia come salt, quicksilver (mercury), wine, leather, furs, and wool.” (Warnkönig: Histoire de la Flandre et de ses institutions civiles et politiques jusqu'à l'année 1305, t. II, pp. 514–515) Galicia and Gelderland: An Early Commercial Link in Late Medieval English Literature One of the most striking and little-known commercial connections appears in the anonymous Croxton Play of the Sacrament (ca. 1491), an English miracle play. The merchant character declares: “In GYLDRE and in GALYS have I bought and sold.” Here, GALYS clearly refers to Galicia (the standard Middle English form for Galice/Galys), while GYLDRE is almost certainly a variant spelling of Gueldre / Gelderland (the historic County and later Duchy of Guelders, modern Gelderland province in the Netherlands). This pairing is highly significant: In the 15th century, Galicia was one of Western Europe’s largest exporters of raw flax (linen fibre), salted fish (especially sardines), wine, salt, and wool. Gelderland, an important agricultural and textile-processing region in the eastern Low Countries, imported large quantities of Galician flax to produce mid-to-high quality cloth for domestic use and re-export to England, Germany, and Scandinavia. Merchants from England (like the one in the Croxton Play) frequently traded through Flemish and Dutch ports (Antwerp, Dordrecht), making Galicia and Gelderland complementary destinations in the same Atlantic commercial network. This is likely one of the earliest literary mentions in English of Galicia as a specific trading partner alongside Gelderland — a connection rarely highlighted in general histories of medieval trade, which tend to focus on Flanders (Bruges, Ghent) or Portugal. It underscores that Galicia was perceived in late medieval England not as a marginal province of “Spain”, but as Galys — a distinct kingdom and economic actor in its own right. Merovingian and Carolingian Coin Finds in Lugo and Santiago de Compostela: Evidence of Early Frankish Connections in Gallaecia (6th–9th centuries) Excavations in the city of Lugo (particularly around the Roman walls and the historic centre) have uncovered a significant quantity of early medieval coinage: Merovingian coins (6th–7th centuries): gold tremisses and denarii from Frankish kings (e.g., Clotaire II, Dagobert I). Carolingian coins (8th–9th centuries): silver denarii of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, in notable numbers. Anglo-Saxon coins from Northumbria (8th–9th centuries): a smaller number of denarii from kings such as Offa of Mercia or Eadberht of Northumbria. Only a single Arabic coin has been found in these contexts, in contrast to the dozens of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon pieces. These finds indicate that Lugo was an important centre of exchange in northwestern Hispania, with direct commercial and monetary connections to the Frankish kingdom and Anglo-Saxon England. Similar evidence appears in the deepest archaeological layers of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (8th–9th centuries), where Carolingian silver denarii (Charlemagne and Louis the Pious) have been recovered, alongside late Visigothic and some Anglo-Saxon coins. The presence of Carolingian coinage in the foundational layers of the cathedral confirms that Santiago de Compostela was already a site of wealth and international exchange before the official “discovery” of the Apostle’s tomb (ca. 813–830). Early Frankish Presence in Gallaecia During the Suevic Period (6th–7th centuries) The Frankish presence in Gallaecia dates back to the Suevic kingdom (409–585) and the early Visigothic period. The Parrochiale Sueuum (6th century), a Visigothic ecclesiastical document listing dioceses and monasteries in the Suevic kingdom, already mentions places such as Francos and Francelos within the territory of Gallaecia. GALICIAN PLACE NAMES: FRANCOS, FRANCELOS, FRANCIA & FRANZA. These toponyms (Francos, Francelos, Francia, Franza) — formed as accusative plurals, a common pattern for ethnic settlements in the Iberian Peninsula — are concentrated almost exclusively north of the Miño River (nearly 40 documented cases). They cluster around royal or noble monasteries (e.g., Samos, Carboeiro, Ferreira de Pantón, Ferreira de Pallares) and natural ports/refuges on the northern coast (e.g., Ría de Ortigueira, Ladriño, Espasante). This distribution suggests early Frankish (likely Merovingian, 6th–7th centuries) settlements in Gallaecia, possibly merchants, refugees, or allied communities integrated by the Suevic or Visigothic authorities. The presence of Frankish merchants in Lugo is documented in the 7th-century Vita Sancti Fructuosi , where Saint Fructuosus attempts to flee to the Holy Land aboard Frankish trading ships docked there or in the nearby port of Burgo (A Coruña). No other region in the Iberian Peninsula shows such a high density of Frankish toponyms, highlighting Gallaecia's unique role as a bridge between the Visigothic/Suevic northwest and the Frankish north.